Criminology

Some of the recent shooting incidents in U.S universities are racially motivated. The incident at CT Wesleyan University is one of such incidents as overwhelming evidence was revealed that proved the gunman was an anti-Semitic and he had written in his journal that it is ok to kill Jews. Johanna Justin-Jinich, a Jewish student familiar to the gunman was the victim and was mentioned as the target in the said journal (Nelson, 2009).
             
The police response according to the article was adequate as thorough investigations were done thus assuring the local Jewish community and the students at the university of their safety (Nelson, 2009). But this is just one of the many incidents that have occurred over the years and the reasons vary from racism, as in the case of Jen (Johanna Justin-Jinich), to poor working conditions, prompting university staff to react in such a manner.
       
Police response towards such an incident is considered as vital and at times could determine the direction of the case. Therefore, preparation is fundamental and part of this involves research into their tactics as they respond to incidents and seek to improve themselves even further. Research is therefore very important as it goes into civilizing the tactics the law enforcers use in handling different cases thus improving their abilities even further. In such cases where a simple mishandling of the case could spark controversy, police response and tactics should be nothing short of professional, just and swift. Unfortunately, sometimes that is not the case since in some of the incidents, the law enforcers tend to collude with the college administration as they try to control the information in an effort to protect themselves. Such an event can therefore cause a lot of disharmony and unnecessary uproar from the local communities.        

Murray Rothbard, an American intellectual and Libertarian, stated that there is a just war existing when people are fighting against a coercive dominion of another group of people. It also exists when people are trying to overthrow an already existing domination. There is no however a just war when people try to rule over or dominate another people or try to retain an already existing dominion. The Just War Theory has two sets of criteria, the right to go to war (jus ad bellum), and the right conduct within war (jus in bello). There is only a right to go to war when the following are met
Just Cause. In 1993, the US Catholic Conference stated Force may be used only to correct a grave, public evil, i.e., aggression or massive violation of the basic human rights of whole populations.

Comparative Justice. One party must suffer more than the other. In other words, the sufferings endured by one party must outweigh that of another party. However, this principle is quite questionable as it can be used by some clever organizations to their advantage.

Legitimate authority. Those who can wage wars are only the duly constituted public authorities. Even just causes cannot be served by actions taken by individuals or groups who do not constitute an authority sanctioned by whatever the society and outsiders to the society deem legitimate.
Right intention. Only a truly just cause is acceptable ground for waging wars. Furthermore, the war must be fought only because and for that certain cause. An example of a right intention is correcting a suffered wrong. Material gain or maintaining economy is not a valid and acceptable reason for waging wars.

Probability of Success. In cases where disproportionate measures are needed to succeed, arms may not be used. This is also true for a futile cause.

Last resort. All non-violent options must first be exhausted before the use of force can be justified.
Proportionality. The expected evils or harms of a war must be in proportion to the anticipated benefits. This is also known as the principle of macro-proportionality.

There are also guidelines on how to act during just wars and they are as follows
Distinction. The acts of war should be directed only towards enemy combatants. Non-combatants and innocent individuals must not be involved or harmed in any way.

Proportionality. An attack cannot be launched on a military objective in the knowledge that there would be excessive incidental civilian injuries in relation to the anticipated military advantage.
Military necessity. There should be minimum force applied in a just war. The goal of any attack or action is to help the military defeat the enemy. It must be an attack on a military objective and not an act to harm civilians or destroy civilian properties. Should there be harm or destruction against civilians, it should not be excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated. The deaths of civilians are justified only if they are unavoidable victims of a deliberate attack on a military target.

Having stated these, it can be deduced that the war on terror is a just war. It has a just cause with the right intention, given by someone in authority. Also, it is already needed to protect the citizens. It is no longer right and acceptable to allow terrorists ruin the lives and properties of innocent individuals. Even if they claim that they have a mission to fulfill or a message to deliver and that they needed to do such acts, still it is not just and totally a violation against human right. With what these terrorists did and are still capable of doing, the military is left with no choice but to wage a war against them. Remember that the military is condemning the act of terrorism and not the Arabs or any race for that matter. Fighting terrorism would only cease to be just if it violates any of the above-mentioned principles. If it was done solely for the personal gain or revenge, if it does not consider innocent lives and would just be aggressive in killing the enemies. These are the only grounds for a war against terror to be not considered as just. Apart from these, the war against terrorism is a necessary action to protect and preserve precious lives and properties and to put an end to this worldwide violence and terror.

USA Patriot Act
The USA Patriot Act signed on October 26, 2001, more than a month after the 911 attack, is an abbreviation for its title Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism.

The increased incidences of criminal offences in nations are a global menace. They not only affect the victims but also have adverse effects on criminal offenders. The act of crime is a consequence of breaking a law which has been enforced through legal constructs. Most countries are guided by constitutions which incorporate various provisions meant to protect the wellbeing of citizens. In addition to these provisions there are outlined implications for those who opt to break the law and commit crimes. Victimology is a category within the field of criminology which is inclusive of such aspects like juvenile delinquency, drug abuse, assault, murder, rape, robbery and burglary. The potentials of being a victim are present in all individuals even though there are indications of an increased vulnerability for some of them. Unlike criminology which focuses on the reasons behind criminal acts and behaviors, victimology is concerned on how and why individuals are victimized.
There is an observable characteristic of modern perspectives on victimization which involves the notion that victims prompt the act of victimization. The modern society fails to see the victim as such and label them as catalysts of crime. It is therefore imperative that individuals understand the concept of victimology to further dissuade such claims. Indeed, the term victimology must be well explained for optimum comprehension on the subject. This will underlie forming an understanding of who victims are and what circumstances lead them there. Gaining knowledge on this subject will also provide insights into the formulation of strategies for preventing victimization. It is vital that individuals are harnessed with the capacity to detect their vulnerability to victimization and take precautions for avoiding the same. In addition, the study of victimology will pave way for the creation of a fundamental framework for understanding victims. In doing so, it will be possible to develop rehabilitative programs which suit all kinds of victims.

Victimology as a scientific field of study focuses on physical, emotional and financial factors which influence causation of victimization. It also evaluates the events leading to incidences of victimization. As such, victimology entails the study of precursors, vulnerabilities, events, impacts, recoveries and responses of people, cultures and organization in relation to victimization. Sparks (1981) and Whitrod (1991) assert that victimization can also be a process as it affects different individuals under different circumstances on an everyday basis. Victimization is associated with sufferings, sacrifices and deaths hence victims deserve to be made whole again by restoring their dignity and self-esteem as suggested by Smith and Hillenbrand (1997). From the following discussion it will be evident that even criminal offenders can be victimized. The case studies illustrating Matthew Stuarts experiences will be critical in cementing this discussion.

Definitions
Victims can be referred to as people who have single handedly or collectively suffered harm, physical or mental damage, emotional torment, economical loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights through criminal acts as defined by Corns (1997). According to Garkawe (2000) victims are individuals who have experienced assault, murder, rape, robbery and burglary, loss, or hardship subjected to them. Victimization is a process in which individuals become victims of several circumstances either induced by individuals themselves or their surroundings and can be measured by several factors as depicted by Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002).

Matthew Stuart Pearce in Hunt (2009, p.3), became a general victim due to the natural catastrophes which occurred during his childhood. These incidences had been beyond human control and had been executed randomly.  This illustrates the aspect of victimization circumstances which are present in peoples lives. General victimization is further described as physical suffering, financial or emotional damages and experiences in which properties are taken, occurrences of terrifying events and natural calamities. One can become a victim through own acts as the case was with Matthew Stuart Pearce (28) who involved himself in juvenile delinquency by abusing  drugs in hope of running away from the harsh circumstances he was going through. The process of victimization was further aggravated by his association with people who were not in a capacity to help in resolving the problem. It is also important to point out that most victims find themselves as such by circumstance. Even though he resulted to committing crime Matthew Stuart Pierce (Insight, 2009, p.74) had also been victimized as it is illustrated this happened after the killings of his mother and siblings. Left to fend for himself, Matthew resulted into his own mechanisms for coping which led to his criminal life.

Another form of victimization is child abuse which is characterized by sexual harassment, physical, emotional and psychological injury as a result of neglect by parents or guardians care in which physical protection is absent thus children become more vulnerable to abuse. Kelly Richards (2009) report shows that child complainants in the criminal justice system experience more difficulties compared to other complainants. Children who are victims of sexual assault make up a substantial majority of complainants. The cases in the judicial process are very traumatizing especially when dealing with sexual offences where children are involved. This becomes heightened when the children are required to give evidence against family members as they are undoubtedly exposed to the public.

Fisher and Schreck (2004) report that family and peer contexts influence victimization through routine activities, social structures and demographic features which motivate offenders.  After such incidences they become distraught and experience what is commonly referred to as victim trauma. Victim trauma is a result of painful and physical experiences which have a long term effect on a persons life .The death of parents and siblings through fights and murder exposes individuals to traumatic situations which naturally harms ones emotional stability. Furthermore, this form of trauma especially for child victims can be excruciating and failure to reverse it results in dire consequences. Matthew Stuart Pierce (Hunt, 2009, p.3) never recovered from the trauma of losing his mother and siblings under such horrifying circumstances and this made him a juvenile delinquent.

Mouzos and Venditto (2006) reported that there is a victimization of tourists who are prone to homicide. This results from the fact that for crime to occur there is a factor motivating offenders, suitable targets, opportunity, convenience and lack of effective protection. It further suggests that tourists display personal and behavioral features increasing the risk of being targeted with crimes such as robbery as suggested by Walklate (1997) on risks of victimization. Tourists are targeted following the assumption that they are in possession of large sums of money and valuable items, they increase the risk of being attacked due to frequent visits to night clubs and bars, travelling to dangerous places and poor communication between tourists and natives.

The Concept of Conservative Victimology
Garkawe (2000), Wormer (2009) and Gavrielides(2008) suggest that Restoration of Justice is a systematic formal legal response to crime victimization that emphasizes on healing the injuries that result from the crime that had effect on victims offended, offenders and communities. This process is derived from the traditional form of justice dealing with criminals and victims who traditionally have perpetuated crime. It is supported by law and this encourages offenders responsibility by involving victims in the system of justice thus cutting down government expenses. This is limited to petty offences in which the proceedings from the criminal court do not result to imprisonment. This may result to double punishments when misconceptions and disagreements occur by forcing offenders obligations.

Conservatism has great effects on the criminal justice policy. Suggestions for change and interventions in criminal justice are often in favor of crime victims. It is also dominated by law and order with the objective of lowering criminal victimization by emphasizing a lawful and orderly society. The failure to reform the policies leads to the decline of criminal support. This increases police power and resources they also have great influence in favor of conservative governments. They invoke victims in order to bargain for more powers and resources though penal policy is dictated by protecting the community the process denies victims the opportunity to participate in the process of justice as they believe criminal justice is complete, consistent, independent and  have powers to stand alone.

The abovementioned statement also depicts that there is a belief that individuals need to take responsibility for their actions. Social factors are considered not important to criminals offenders take all blame for criminal acts. Individuals are perceived to take initiatives in prevention, avoidance, resistance and recovery from victimization. This is important as crime rates are predicted to be on the decline. Traditionalists emphasize on the concept of self- reliance by putting stress on victims and the societal oriented crime prevention measures. They believe criminal acts are beyond government powers hence it is the responsibility of individuals, families, institutions and religions to reduce crime.

Specific victim policies as suggested by law and order are limited to personal crimes of violence against property mainly by strangers resulting from assaults, murder, rape and robbery with violence. This instills fear of crime thus, law advocates manipulate public emotions. Victims are perceived to be virtuous while offenders are evil doers the advocates take advantage by appealing to emotions of the public. This is more so relevant to conservative supporters specifically the victims advocates who understand the system and make the victims statements most effective. Consequently, this empowers the victims by enhancing the success of prosecutions with strong penalties achieved through minimal expenditure of government resources.  This is the main goal of lawyers compared to more elaborate measures for better treatment of victims within the criminal justice system. Conservatism fosters specialized treatment for victims and fails to acknowledge the circumstances of the criminal offenders. This was the case for Matthew Stuart Spencer (Insight, 2009, p.74) as described by his lawyer that the society failed him by not acknowledging that he was also a victim of crime. His prior victimization had left him utterly vulnerable and it is evident that this conservatism if not checked will contribute to the aggravation of his situation.

Other factors associated with conservatism are government initiatives of compensating victims, which is viewed with ambivalence by advocates of law and order. Most of them will not want the government to get involved in funding but prefer settlements be done by offenders. Some conservative jurisdiction governments have significantly lowered the pay of victims compensation. Restitution order is part of conservatism in favor of victims and offenders criminal sanction. Law enforcers are in agreement that restitution should be encouraged to save governments costs for victims compensation to enhance the accountability of offenders. Victim support services are encouraged to enhance successful prosecution so long as government expenditures are not involved this is further suggested by Frank and Joe (2009).

Mediation between offenders and victims is a formal meeting between the offenders and victims in the presence of mediators to dialogue with objectives of developing solutions to offences. This is done with the aim of reconciliation by creating a mutual acceptance plan to repair harms and damages that occurred during crime offences. This allows room for eliminating conflicts between the parties involved in disagreements as indicated by Dussich et al (2009).

Concept of Critical and Radical Themes in Victimology
McShane and Williams III (1992) suggestions state that traditional victimology has not tapped radical victimology to assist in explaining social reactions to crime and crime victims. It is an outcome of unequal social factors like unemployment, poverty, patriarch and racism causing crimes. The need for great resources to be devoted to law enforcement agencies and prisons are agents of social control. Some suggest termination whereas others want it to be replaced with an informal justice system and that society should take responsibility for crimes as a whole but not as individuals. In Insight (2009, p.74), Matthew Stuart Pearces lawyer called for collective societal responsibilities for the circumstances his client found himself in. He argued that if it were not for the societys neglect of Matthew leaving him completely vulnerable, his crimes would have been nonexistent. It is asserted that there is no division between victims and offenders, all groups of people in society are victims.

Victim compensation expands social control by insisting that victims reporting of matters to the police is reinforced by restricted eligibility. State sponsored victim programs are agents of supporting social control with guided influence. This involves not being compassionate to victims and programs are predicated on the needs of prosecution furthering interests of police and prosecution firms. It is opposed that crime victims having formal rights in the criminal justice system and the concept of victim participation in court proceedings includes the effects of a victims statement. Involvement of victims in justice systems aids government in conviction of defendants and advocates higher penalties increasing the likelihood of incarceration. In turn there is an increase of social control though the victims testifying and giving true testimonials to, accusers and prosecutors no longer exist to bring offenders to justice. The restitution order against offenders is often unrealistic and lengthens an offenders involvement with the criminal justice system in cases of serious crimes. This seems a genuine alternative and paradigm shift from existing retributive criminal justice systems. The concept supports mediation as explained Garkawe (2000) and McShane and Williams III (1992). Thus, the radical paradigm concludes that crime is seen as a significant problem affecting peoples lives.

The reality of crime should be analyzed beyond immediate appearances and control of crimes must be taken seriously. Circumstances of offenders and victims should be put into consideration when making decisions on criminal policies. A criminals offending circumstances and factors leading to their acts should be clearly analyzed. This is so as to ensure proper rehabilitative measures as was the case for Matthew Stuart Pearce (Hunt, 2009, p.3) who required counseling for his traumatic childhood experiences. Crime must be tackled by being alert to present situations in the society. Criminal justice systems, prisons departments and police forces should not be terminated but reforms be made to put social control in place.

According to Friedrichs (1983) radical victimology is defined as oppressing conditions which cause crimes and the same is explained by South Australian Consolidated Acts (2001). Victims of crime are subjected to brutal policies in the name of maintaining law and order. Exploitation is experienced in unjust societies where workers are deprived of their rights by the system of capitalism. Also the failure to deter complex crimes subjects individuals to victimization. Victimization is caused by deliberate and intentional violation of law by modifying the role of victims to persons who provide credible emotions for persecution. This leads to actual harm being ignored and focus directed to offenders denying victims their right to justice. Wemmers (2008) and McShane and Williams III (1992) point of view states that victims in the past were actively involved in the criminal justice process and were in charge of initiating and prosecutions of offenders. They have been banished from their role by being sidelined and their roles reduced to that of witnesses.

Conclusion
The law should include services for victims, restitution from offenders, information about the criminal justice system and the right to formal participation in the criminal justice process. The field of victimology should have professional people with specialized training in dealing with criminal acts, offences, and victims well being to help victims to fully recover. Formal victim assistance programs should be established by social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, medical doctors should team up to help in counseling the victims as suggested by Corns (1997).

According to the history and the researches that were conducted, it was found to be a link between poverty and crime. Even though there is a link between them, there is still a question of whether crime is a direct result of poverty though its a debatable concern.

Poverty in most cases goes hand in hand with the number of crimes that have been committed in any given area. Illegal business brings about high returns. It has been found that these businesses are in most cases controlled by violent gangs who capitalize on the poverty of others. Some theories suggest that people are poor by their own making. Whereas we know that use of drugs and violet gang activities bring about poverty, many Americans are poor as a result of historical reasons. The Civil War left many people poor, slaves were turned loose without education or good opportunities to make a reasonable living. (Weatherburn, et al, 2007)

A study done by TNS (Weatherburn, et al, 2007), Research Surveys in South Africa revealed that among other factors, poverty is caused by
Population density
Compositions of the population in relation to age and race
Economic status of the community
Educational, recreational, and religious aspects
Effectiveness of the law enforcing agents
Prosecution and the courts policies
These factors are the same that to a large extent contribute to high crime rate in these regions.

Looking at some instances, one sees that poverty is not the cause of crime but rather an excuse. There are many people of integrity who are poor and do not engage in crime, while at the same time there are many rich individuals who engage in crime. The rampant corruption in Africa involving high ranking and wealthy government officials is a clear indication of this.

Modern technology especially in communication exposes people to lifestyles that they cannot afford. This leads to desperation and eventually leads to crime in people of less integrity.

Levels of Measurement
(a) Gender
In this case, I would use Nominal Measures in to quantify gender. This is because a person can either be male or female. These two are exclusive events. What is needed is to describe them and we need not assign numbers to them.

(b) Race
Race is another characteristic for which I would use nominal level. This is because one can, as an example be Indian, Jewish, African, Hispanic, Asian etc. No numbers or statistical values need to be assigned to these mutually exclusive characteristics.

(c) Perceptions of Stress
This can be treated as ordinal level data whereby values can be assigned to perception of stress. This however is subjective because stress is not quantifiable though we can give values like 1, 2, 3up to 10 and assign 1 to the lowest stress and 10 to the highest. The intervals in between have no significance in this case.

(d) Convicted Felons
These can be treated as ratiolevel data because the number of felons can take any value from zero upwards, and each interval represents the increase in the number of felons.

(e) Courts Sentences
These are ratio-level data. This is because they range from zero and may take any numerical value, in years, months or even days. They are therefore quantified using ratio-level. However for purposes of research, these may be broken down to nominal level by classifying them in intervals e.g. 0-5, 6-10, 11-15 and so on.

(f) Average Prison Stay for Burglars
Like court sentences, these represent ratio-level data because they are mutually independent aspects which may take any number or statistical value (Dantzker,  Hunter, 1958).

Methods of Data Collection
(a) Gang activity in prisons In order to collect data for the research of gang activity in prisons, I would use personal survey method. One disadvantage of this method in this case is that the inmates are not easily accessible because of the prison restrictions. The advantage is that a response is obtained almost in every enquiry (Dantzker,  Hunter, 1958).

(b) Sentencing Patterns of a Particular Court
Interview method can be used the in collecting data for the research of sentencing patterns of a particular court. The advantage of this type of data collection is that it is easy to carry out, and has high response rate

(C ) The effect of a treatment program for drug users
In order to collect data for the research of the effect of a treatment program for drug users, I would use In-depth Interview method. This method has the advantage of letting the interviewer get a more of information, although on the other hand it is time-consuming (Dantzker,  Hunter, 1958).

Since its introduction in the early 19th century, bicycles now number about one billion worldwide, twice as many as automobiles.  The bicycle since then has been constantly used as an alternative mode of transportation, for recreation, sports, adventure, and companionship. In the United States, between 1992 and 2006, bicycle sales have increased from 15.3 million to 18.2 million per year (an increase of roughly 20).  These changes in bicycle usage and provision have been influenced by
increased awareness of the detrimental effect of automobile carbon dioxide emissions, and pursuit of air quality and emission reduction targets
concerns over growing traffic congestion and accompanying noise pollution
rising levels (and fear) of obesity and heart disease
recognition that most trips are relatively short, or bike-sized
savings in road maintenance and improvement of street infrastructure and
responses to policies such as traffic congestion charging.

However, even the bicycle is not spared from the clutches of criminal activity.
Efforts to collect data on bicycle theft are hampered as police data underrepresented the problem.  In 2006, The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) reported an estimated 1.3 million incidents of theft-from or theft-of bicycles, compared to the 2005 data indication 250,000 bikes stolen each year.  Some reports attribute this problem due to the victims belief that the police are not interested in bicycle theft and cannot do anything about it, in terms of catching the offender and returning the stolen bicycle.
   
The disinterest among victims of bike theft is thoroughly supported by numbers.  In a study conducted by the Transport Research Laboratory, 17 of cyclists experience bicycle theft.  Of these, 24 subsequently give up cycling and 66 cycle less often as a result.  In 1993, over 5,500,000 bicycles were reported stolen annually.  Apparently, the problem of bicycle theft must be addressed if such mode of transportation is to be considered as a viable and healthy alternative to motorized transport.  

Program Outline
This crime prevention program focuses on preventing bicycle thefts.  Bicycles are without a doubt a tremendous benefit not only as a mode of transport, but as a means of recreation, sports, and as a symbol of environmental awareness today.  However, bicycle thefts are also prevalent, and police data on occurrences of bicycle thefts are underrepresented.  Furthermore, disinterest from victims of bicycle thefts hamper police efforts because of the victims belief that the police are not interested and cannot do anything about it, in terms of arresting the offender and recovering their bicycle.

This program also explores the importance of studying the social aspects of crimes in order to reduce and prevent it.  The two traditional models, deterrencepunishment and treatmentrehabilitation, are considered a failure and a more effective model of crime prevention must be introduced.  The federal government introduced a system of crime prevention that incorporates local community members to fight crime, thereby involving the participation of private sectors.  This model is now generally accepted not only throughout the country, but throughout the world as well.  There is also a need to revolutionize product design as a counter-measure against bicycle theft.  This contention is based on the principle that certain objects, including the bicycle, become targets of criminal activity because of the presence of certain properties that attracts attention from potential offenders.

This program seeks to understand and identify the factors that contribute to bicycle theft.  This can be determined using the Five Ws of information-gathering and investigation---WhatWho, Where, When, How, and Why.  This is, however, limited to data provided by the El Segundo Police Department.

Finally, the program seeks to suggest responses on which occurrences of bicycle can be averted and to restore confidence among cyclists.  The responses may involve local and national governments in its implementation.  However, the emphasis is on both prevention of bicycle thefts and helping community members solve the theft problem, in close coordination with administrative agencies, the police, and some groups in the private sector

Issues of Concern
Community involvement in crime prevention has been undergoing a trial-and-error of sorts for the last 50 years.  Jefferson, in his book, Crime Prevention through Environmental Design, noted that traditional models of crime control namely, retributiondeterrence and treatmentrehabilitation, have been costly failures financially and in terms of human dignity.

In the 1960s, the Kennedy Administration introduced a social program called Mobilization for Youth to provide the youth more opportunities through empowering disadvantaged groups to challenge the unjust distribution of resources in their communities.  Adam Crawford, in explaining its failure, suggested it sparked what is known as  a crisis of legitimacy among government agencies, whereby social service programs and criminal justice agencies were perceived as out-of-touch with the preferences of those they served and incapable of affecting social structure.  It led to a rethinking in criminology where social structure must be given emphasis.  Community defense activities were created to allow fearful and punitive citizens to protect themselves and their property against opportunistic offenders and to fight back though such actions as citizen patrols and property marking.  After a series of successes in the 1970s, the federal government expanded such programs by developing standards for citizen involvement set forth by the U.S. National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards in 1973, and by sponsoring training for community organizations and law enforcement agencies interested in launching such programs.   In 2002 United Nations adopted guidelines which laid down the principles of community crime prevention among Municipal Governments.

Crime Reduction through Product Design (CRPD) is also one of the effective means in preventing products from becoming targets of crime.   It is based on the principle that some items are attractive as targets of theft because they are Concealable, Removable, Available, Valuable, Enjoyable, and Disposable, hence the acronym CRAVED.  In an article by Andrew Lester, CRPD is instrumental in either preventing offenses or facilitating an effective and efficient response following an offense.

Category of Offenders
Not all bicycles are stolen for financial gain. Some offenders may take a bicycle simply to get from one place to another, and then abandon it. Research suggests that bicycle thieves can be categorized in the following way in terms of their motivation
Joyriders-those who steal any type of bicycle for transportation andor enjoyment. These offenders generally abandon the stolen bicycle after use. Younger offenders (16 and under) typically fit this group.

Acquisitive-those who exploit easy opportunities to steal any type of bicycle and trade it for cash or goods (such as drugs).

Volume-those who steal specific types of bicycles andor numerous bicycles to order
Police Profile of El Segundo

Figure 1. Map of the City of El Segundo.
The City of El Segundo is approximately 5.4 square miles with a population of approximately 16,900 people. The daytime population is approximately 100,000 people, due to large industry and a large commercial population.  The criminal aspect of the city ranges from predominately property crimes, to crimes against persons. The city is largely a non-violent bedroom community, however the city does experience occasional crimes against persons such as simple batteries, etc.
 
The El Segundo Police Department has sixty-nine sworn officers ranging from the Chief of Police, Captains, Lieutenants, Sergeants, Detectives, and Patrol. The police department currently has only a Microsoft Excel organizational matrix and to make a more efficient system, a new unofficial and unapproved chart is being created.
     
Understanding the Problem
This writer will identify the roots of bicycle thefts in El Segundo based on police data obtained.  Using the Five Ws method in information gathering ---What, When, Where, How, and Why--- the results, based on the police record are as follows

WhatWho - Suspects are generally unknown, and the record does not indicate probable culprits within the area of theft.  Stolen bicycles range from mountain bikes, touring bikes to BMX bikes, however Beach Cruiser types are commonly mentioned.  Victims targeted are ones whose houses commonly have front porches, carportsgarages, apartments, bicycle racks or locations within said areas.  Some of the victims also own vehicles (See Table 1).

Where - Occurrences of bicycle thefts are scattered throughout El Segundo City, with areas in East Grand Avenue, East Mariposa Avenue, East Acacia Avenue, West Mariposa Avenue, and North Continental Avenue experiencing more that one occasions of theft.  Thefts commonly take place in residences, separate garages, vehicles, bicycle racks, and apartments (See Table 2).
When  Results of tabulation (see Table 1.1) show occurrences of bicycle thefts peak during the summer and is gradually reduced during the transition towards winter.  Months such as July, August, September, and October show a high frequency of bicycle theft cases.  On a Week basis, only 1 case of bicycle theft occurred during Sunday, but thefts gradually increase until it peaks on Fridays (see Table 1.1).    
 
How - Common methods of committing bicycle theft are lifting, levering, striking, cutting, unbolting, and picking.  The record shows signs of lifting, cutting and lock defeats. Bicycles are commonly left unattended in residential facilities, carportsgaragesshared entrances, car parks, on-street, parked bicycles, and automobile racks.

Why - It is not immediately known why the victims bicycles are stolen.  However, the records show that more that half of the bicycles stolen are left unsecured.  Bicycles can be easily dismantled and sold for sale, or in exchange for goods.  The principle of CRAVE applies to bicycles as well (see page 4).  

 Responses to Bicycle Thefts
Counter-measures against occurrences of bicycle theft are broad in scope, if administrative and community action is to be taken into consideration.  This writer believes the following are viable measures for prevention of bicycle thefts in El Segundo

Stronger Locks
Figure 2 to 2.1. Kryptonite locks.
It is important for ensure that bicycle users are aware of the levels of security offered by the lock they use.  Websites such as www.soldsecure.com can be helpful as a source of advice as to security of locks. Examples of stronger anti-theft locking devices are the U-shaped Kryptonite locking device.

Community-Wide Bicycle Campaigns
Figure 3 to 3.1. Bicycle campaigns in other countries.
A community information drive supported by various government agencies is also effective as it can ignite awareness of bicycle safety and security.  With police participation, cyclists will have an opportunity to learn more on how to secure their bicycles, where to park, information on bicycle anti-theft devices, and what to do in case of theft.  If provided, this will also create an opportunity to encourage cyclists to register their bicycles and provoke discussions and information sharing on how bicycle theft can be averted.

Bike Lanes
Figure 4. Bicycle lanes          
Figure 4.1 Bicycle lanes in New York
Having well-lighted and clearly-delineated bicycles drive lanes can be helpful to cyclists as it reduces the opportunity for potential theft.  Users of these lanes will also be protected from possible automobile accidents and injury.  Although this is primarily a government action based on the needs of the community, bicycle lanes can raise awareness of the economic, environmental, and health benefits of the bicycle.  

Integration of GPS units on Bicycles
Figure 5 to 5.1. GPS Bicycle units
GPS (Global Positioning System) units have been used by cyclists in cross-country sporting events and for leisure purposes.  GPS uses a collection of satellites, owned by the US government, to provide highly accurate, positioning and navigation information by constantly transmitting the satellites precise time and position in space. A GPS unit installed on a bicycle will enable cyclists to track the location of their bicycles in case of theft.  Prices of GPS units may range from 300-500 per unit.  Despite the stiff price tag, it is clearly an effective means of averting the loss of an individuals bicycle.

Reduce Flyparking
.      
Figure 5. Flyparking in England                    
Figure 5.1. Bicycle parking on a stand post.Flyparking (e.g. locking of cycles to trees or street furniture not designed for this purpose) is common and is shown to contribute to cycle theft.  This can either be a government effort to improve and increase parking facilities or for the community to create awareness of the negative effects of flyparking.

Anti-Theft Bicycle Stands
Figure 6. Anti-Theft bicycle stand.      
Figure 6.1. Illustration on proper locking procedures.
Bikeoff.org conducted a series of tests to determine which bike stands are deemed effective against theft.  All three design proposals were yielded positive results, and higher rates of preventing theft of bicycles.  Anti-theft Bicycle Stands, coupled with well-placed locks, can ensure safety against bicycle thefts.

Distribution of Unused Bicycles To Minor Theft Victims
The El Segundo Police Department has an array of unused bicycles in which less fortunate children who are victims of bicycle theft can use temporarily until the recovery of their lost bicycle
                 
Figure 7. Unused bicycles in storage.
Figure 7.1. A teenager aided by local police
This will expectedly restore confidence in the use of bicycles among bicycle theft victims.    

Bicycle Registration
Figure 8. Bicycle registration plate.                  
Figure 8.1.  Bicycle registration drives in England.  
Registration of bicycles can fast-track the recovery of stolen bicycles.  Registrants are encouraged to register their bicycles, and return, can avail of discounts coupons in purchasing bicycle anti-theft devices at their local retail stores.  This can be conducted city-wide through biking campaigns, information drives, and publicity.

Biker Education and Media Campaigns
               
Figure 9. Bicycle locking reminders.    
Figure 9.1 No-Bike Week signs
Research indicates for crimes such as burglary, publicising crime prevention activity can have an impact on crime over and above the response itself.  Media outlets can be tailor-made to inform the public, specifically bicycle users, on effective locking practices, anti-theft devices, crime prevention events such as registration and bicycle marking.

The world of crime prevention has shown improvement with the implementation of a program that involves strategic management.  Referred to as Compstat, it is the combination of computers and statistics.  This program targets the reduction of crimes by gathering statistical data that breaks down crimes by category and by type.  This data provides percentiles that reflect crime patterns.  This allows crime agencies to stay a step ahead of crimes and therefore alleviate environmental factors that have aided in the continuity of crime.  This paper will speak on how Compstats increased awareness has provided a raised predictability factor that has proven successful in the reduction of crime rates.

Factors Necessitating a Crime Prevention Program
The New York Police Department in 1994 came to the realization that there was a lag in the collection of statistical data related to crime.  This development necessitated the need for a better process in which to stay current and organized in studying crime trends.  This need facilitated the mechanism to ensure precinct commanding officers accountability and to improve performance (Eterno, 2005).

Measures implemented by then Commissioner Bratton and executed by Deputy Commissioner Maple addressed an effective process wherein data gathering and collection were systematic.  This process was the early version of Compstat called Charts of the Future.  It consisted of simply applying stickpins to a city map geographically tracking crime.

The discussions that occurred on the use of this process opened doors, which led to further insight of gaps within the precincts.  These witnessed by inadequate presentations that did not provide detailed specifics of a complex nature in relation to the crimes that were committed.  This led to the belief that reporting results were subjective versus factual thereby inhibiting clarity of any trends (Eterno, 2005).
In light of these types of findings it was clear that documented organization for analysis was needed throughout the police precincts and existing departments.  Therefore, the launching of Compstat took place.  Changes included the initiation of integral monthly meetings for all boroughs.  From this meeting came the addition of two more meetings per week to review and discuss new strategies based on Compstat results.   Thanks to Compstat, police agencies now had an organizational management tool where crime maps and statistics are used to actively target crime in the areas where it is needed the most.  There are four principles of Compstat
Accurate and Timely Intelligence
Effective Tactics
Rapid Deployment
Relentless Follow-up and Assessment
(Lepine, 2010).

Dedication to these principles by each borough and precinct inclusive of every staff member can be a deciding factor of program success or failure.

Discussion of the Crime Triangle
A great assessment derived from Compstat data is that of the Crime Triangle.  It is an assessment of the strategy that robbers use when committing the crime of robbery.  It is a counter strategy to the criminal strategy, with the Elements of the Crime Triangle representative of the crime strategy as follows
Elements of the Crime Triangle Strategy
Opportunity to commit the offence Increase the risk of apprehensions
Ability to commit the offence Increase the effort to required to commit the offense
Desire to commit the offence Reduce the rewards available to the offender
(Atkinson, 2009).

The police agencies strategy response empowers businesses to change environmental factors that enable the crime of robbery to take place.  It helps businesses to be aware of the layout of the premises and what makes a particular layout appealing to robbers, and what makes them want to stay away.  Things for businesses to consider are the layout of the building, and landscape (Atkinson, 2009).
Premises should be open and uncluttered with a view of cash registers readily and easily seen through the windows.  Any signs should be displayed in a manner that does not block the inside view, and back entrances and windows should always be locked when unattended.  Keep trees and bushes pruned so they do not obstruct the view of the building from the street, and there should be clear space between bushes.   Layouts set up like this deter would be robbers from acting, and enable the ability to notice any strange activities in and around the business (Atkinson, 2009).

Analysis of Success
Compstat has been successful as seen in its many replications throughout precincts nationwide.   The Analysis reveals that the data collection process of weekly, summarized complaints, arrests, and citations activity, coupled with written recapitulation of significant cases, crime patterns and police activities including specific times and locations of when the crimes took place, is then uploaded and distributed via weekly reports to management (Vito, 2004).  

The weekly process involves documenting all crime and activities, taking this information from each borough and precinct, and then forwarding the data to the Chief of the Compstat Unit.  The data is then analyzed via the computer system and the analysis is generated as reports to all management nationwide (Vito, 2004).

The results derived from the computerized information system containing the report of crime and disorder statistics and increased meetings and communications have been successful in developing strategies that reduce crime by ensuring personnel is well informed about crime activities.  The data based on a weekly, 30 day, and yearly comparisons in evaluating compositions of change or analysis of continued trends in keeping track of crime activities and the development of innovative strategies for crime interventions (Vito, 2004).

Critical Analysis of Effectiveness
The data is easy to read and its evaluation in determining trends associated with crime as well as the deviations and anomaliesmake it possible to make comparisons between commands (Vito, 2004).  The mastery of the process is the ranking by each precinct regarding its complaints and arrests records.  This provides motivation for accountability.  Once Operational management is in receipt of the Compstat report problem solving tactics are soon underway in addressing activities.

The strategies developed are taking into account that the objective is not to simply respond to each incident, but to create change that is permanent in reducing or stopping crime, area by area.  Compstat as a management tool has an expanded impact that is very effective in its extension beyond the ability to address and reduce crime.  Its process is applicable to any organization and easily adapts to constantly changing conditions (Vito, 2004),  

Impacts of Societal Factors
Crime is a social problem that generates fear and gives a negative impact to the quality of life.  Studies have shown that there are three dominant models for the causes of fear the vulnerability, disorder, and social integration (Franklin et al, 2008).  Compstats expansion efforts take full account of the impact of crime on society.  Operation managers focus on strategies that will enhance community relations with precincts and officers.  Working together communities and police can affect crime with the provision of information that is invaluable in its contribution to Compstat reporting, and empowering precincts even further in the mission of crime fighting.  

There are two broad expanses of fear factors that affect society, and these again relate to a feeling of being in a location where one feels vulnerable, or there is disorderly conduct occurring.  The other expanse is that of ties to society resulting in reassurance in safety factors obtained in feelings of a connection to society.  These factors are fear facilitators and inhibitors (Franklin et al, 2008).

The strategic efforts of police agencies in collaborative efforts and being unified as a result of Compstats Computerized Information System Reporting, focuses on the nature of these two factors in strengthening the inhibitor factors, and increased reduction of facilitator factors.  The response of management and police officers to strategic planning and increased departmental communications in being informed of statistical measures, in turn addresses both fear facilitators and fear inhibitors.  Another success derived from the use of Compstat.

Predicted Technological Success and Failures
Compstat technically has a high rate for failure as its main data gathered is at police interaction levels.  Due to complexities that may be associated with the handling of particular crimes, much data gathered may not be adequate or captured at all.  As a result, the process in itself is self-limiting and as such is not a preferred outlook on a system that is the biggest breakthrough on crime prevention in the 20th century (Eterno, 2005).  Ways to defeat these limitations has been the incorporation of not only documentation supplied by field officers, but also the use of voice recordings.  This still enables Compstat to remain a simple process, capturing relevant data, and avoiding the loss of information at the scene.

There have been issues related to Compstats simplicity in light of the wide range of departmental duties.  These issues imply that Compstat technology may not have taken into account or addressed fully these aspects (Willis et al, 2003).  This brings to surface the effects of technologies shaping of human culture being influenced by human factors, and advises that Compstat reporting be not as well defined as it could be.  Considerations for Compacts success will be dependent on how well mainstreamed it is into current functionalities.

What the future holds for Compstat is dependent on factors relevant to processes in cohesive working conditions of an internal and external nature.  In other words, a process is only as good as the outcome.  The outcome is reliant on the tools, strategic tendencies, personnel, and purpose applied.  Each factor must have a balance for the achievement of success, and the knowledge that todays technology cannot fulfill tomorrows dream.  Police agencies have a lot of work cut out for them, which can be clearly seen as crime continues to plague society.

Daily focus provided to the advancements of strategic processes developed toward the protection of peoples rights as citizens of the United States of America, comes first, and police take an oath to uphold that right, even before tackling crime itself.  Therefore every process in place for crime prevention must have determining factors built on the precedence of upholding societies inalienable rights under the Declaration of Independence (Eterno, 2005).  Crime takes second place to the rights of society to live in an environment that provides quality of life in everyday interactions.  This is to signify that crime is not acceptable or tolerated.

Specific meaning is to imply that crime should not exist in society.  As it does, is to say that police agencies are not doing an adequate job.  Reduction of crime is a low quality response to existing factors.  Department heads and leaders of police agencies continuously strive for improvements in not only reducing crime, but also effecting permanent change in stopping crime.  They are under much scrutiny from society in relation to why crime is still a problem, and of why society cannot live without fear.  Such looks at environmental factors as these are what affect an industries funding, and budgeting as well as payroll, and rates of pay.

Future advancements for Compstat though it takes an expansive roll in viewing not only crime or internal diplomacies, it is reliant on how community policing is compatible to society as a whole.  The ability to seek constant change and to effect constant change in a world of ever changing principles is a pretty tall order.  Businesses have found success in doing just that, and Compstat has now turned police agencies into business type environments that can benefit as a productive organization the same as business constructs do.  This is one of the many achievements of Compstat.

Compstats effectiveness hinges on its diversity of use on all operational levels within a police agency.  One of the issues may be that it should start at ground level in a direct base for data collection.  It currently starts from the top in making management and leadership more accountable for police processes.  It assures the safety of society by enforcing departmental policies accurately and timely for the safety of society.  What it is missing is the direct information from the field officers.  For Compstat to be effective, all levels of police agencies must be in consistent and balanced use.  It is a systematic process and as such, any part of the system must be a working part.

Issues at hand stem from managements pressure in making sure that they are being accountable, and in doing so they have severely limited the freedom of judgment of field officers.  This takes away from the natural occurrence theme in data collection weakening results and thereby any strategic plans in combating various crimes.  To counter this problem, management needs to apply more training in areas they feel are needed in reassuring that field police are educated and knowledgeable on how to apply themselves accordingly, thus aiding the management process and enhancing crime reduction measures (Willis et al, 2003).

The issue at hand is the compatibility between management and field police.  Many field police feel that the application of Compstat as relayed to them by their superior, is restricting their effectiveness in doing their job.  This realization by upper management holds much value, and is a problem that needs solving.  To do this requires a contingent training program based on meeting department objectives as they apply to the use of Compstat.  This will empower police agencies at all levels (Willis et al, 2003).

Compstat is most effective because it pushes a department into making realistic, clear mission statements that are organized and specific versus missions based on a culmination of generalities derived from a broad set of objectives (Willis et al, 2003).  With all departments clear on the objectives and with the enhanced communication efforts instilled, at this point, what is left is to ensure full capacity training that covers every aspect, in gaining unity within the ranks. Forewarned is forearmed.

Areas to look out for are in keeping with realistic data capturing.  Operational managers need to stress the importance to field officers of the need for raw data.  That there is not a need to attempt to make the department look better statistically, by reclassifying data or inventing data (Willis et al, 2003).  All this does on the other end is making the entire police force look bad and inept because of false reporting.  

In Conclusion
Police agencies definitely have a long way to go in procuring feelings of no fear within communities.  Crime has repeated its cycles of frequency throughout history in combination with types of crimes committed.  The types of persons who commit the crimes and general attitudes displayed.   The use of Compstat provides police agencies with realistic opportunities to actually not only fight crime, but to combat it to an extent that not only reduces it, but can lead to the evolving of a crime free society, based on a crime by crime cessation thereof.  The more police are finding out about crimes, the individuals who perform them, and the environmental factors, brings them that much closer to stopping crime altogether.  It is the same as the research on disease.  The more that man knows about diseases, the more likely he is to find a cure for that disease.  Crime in itself is a disease that police are working on to find a cure, but in the meantime, their efforts are treating this disease so that it does not impede the overall opportunities for the quality of life promised by the Constitution to all.

1.  Compare and contrast the major tenets of the Classical, Neoclassical and Positive schools of criminology commenting upon each schools philosophy of behavior, views of mankind and society, understanding of crime and punishment and any famous persons associated with the school. Also, what current criminal justice policies seem to flow from the respective schools.

Under the Classical School, the view is that man is a calculating animal that all people are guided by freewill that all behavior is guided by hedonism that punishment should be commensurate to the offense committed. It finds basis in the Social Contract Theory, which explains that violation of a persons liberties also violates the social contract by which he lives. The Classical school advocates that people should be presumed innocent until proven guilty, and that the law should be codified with punishment prescribed in advance. The Classical School led to the development of prisons, as well as contributing to the development of the United States legal system. The Positivist school of thought searches for factors as the cause of human behavior. It is characterized by the demand for facts and scientific proof (OConnor, 2010).

Under positivism, there are differences between peoples minds and bodies punishment should be commensurate to the individual, and not the crime itself, the criminal justice system should be guided by scientific experts. Additionally, criminals can be treated, rehabilitated, or corrected.

Under the Neo-classical school of thought, a compromise is reached between Classical and Positivist schools. In this school of thought, character, and not freewill nor determinism, is the source of criminality. It stressed on individual accountability and individualization of punishment. Crime and punishment is seen as being equivalent, and not necessarily proportional or fitting. It also notes that imprisonment should be the normal method of punishment, and that treatment should be the normal method of punishment. It also advocates the abolition of the death penalty (Ibid).

2.  We have studied criminological theories that can be considered as individual difference theories. Each theory suggests that crime is related to some unique physical, biological, or psychological attributes of the individual. Compare and contrast the major beliefs of two dominant theories in this category and indicate the policy implications of each. Also comment upon the empirical support, or lack there of, for each theory.

Under the Choice Theory, the focus is the link between domestic and societal violence in the criminals background, while the Control Theory focuses more on the characteristics to non-criminal activity. The Choice Theories helped bring about policies such as get-rough tactics, police crackdowns some kinds of problem-oriented policing selective incapacitation deterrence strategies of almost all kinds and sometimes, ideas about using shame of embarrassment rituals for offenders (See Special Issue on Criminology and Emotions Theoretical Criminology, August 2002, Vol. 6, Issue 3).

3.  Durkheims theory of anomie is one of the classics in criminological literature not only for what it held, but also for the subsequent thought that it spawned. Please discuss Durkheims theory and compare that to Mertons formulation of the theory.

Anomie is a sociological term meaning personal feeling of a lack of norms. It denotes lack of rules, structure and organization. Durkheim introduced the concept of anomie to describe the mismatch of collective guild labor to evolving societal needs when the guild was homogeneous in its constituency. Mertons Strain theory states that social structures within society may encourage citizens to commit crime. In the comparing the two theories, Merton expanded the Strain Theory based on Durkheims Anomie. An individual suffering from anomie would strive to attain the common goals of a specific society yet would not be able to reach these legitimately because of the structural limitations in society (Merton, 1968).

4.  Please discuss and evaluate Sutherlands theory of differential association commenting upon its strong and weak points and research testing the theory.

The Theory of Differential Association, developed by Edwin Sutherland, explains that individuals learn values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior through interaction with others. This theory focuses on how individuals learn how to become criminals, but does not concern itself with why they become criminals. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of the law. The weakness to this argument is that no one knows which came first, the delinquency or delinquent friends. Additionally, critics point out that although delinquency causes delinquent friends, delinquent friends do not cause delinquency (OConnor, 2006)

5.  From a control theory perspective, please explain and elaborate upon the phrase, . . . all people naturally would commit crimes if left to their own devices.

If viewed from a control theory perspective, the phrase can be interpreted as such people commit crimes if, left to their own devices, they realize that the benefits or advantages for committing such acts outweigh the benefits of refraining from it. Under the Control Theory, people stay rational and refrain from committing deviant acts when they see that the attainment of his selfish goals and desires is possible through conformity. However, the Control looks to the aspect of refraining rather than the reasons for committing crimes.