Criminology

1.  Brief Introduction

The current study aims to determine the effects of training on the use of excessive force in the Australian Police Force. The researcher has been compelled by the findings in Scrivner (1994) study where training specific to the use of excessive force has been cited as a possible intervention to curb this phenomenon. Moreover, these trainings are envisioned to utilize adult learning concepts that entail engaged participation from the police officers, particularly in the form of simulations and role plays.

The same study has likewise noted the inadequate training that specifically tackles the excessive use of force. The police psychologists interviewed in Scrivners (1994) study indicate that 79 carried out counseling for officers who used force excessively 51 addressed this through training on management of stress and only a fourth either conducted training peculiar to the subject of excessive use of force or deliberately monitored behavior related to the this.

Scrivner (1994) further notes police psychologists who participated in research share that the excessive force training that they accorded to police officers was focused on helping them cope with stress rather than being dovetailed to the issue of excessive use of force. Moreover, stress in such classes has been assumed to be the main determinant of excessive use of force, an idea that has not yet garnered conclusive empirical support. For the purposes of the present study, competencies that promote constant interaction with the community shall be ingrained in the proposed training sessions. These competencies will allow them to use force more prudently and to eventually eliminate the prevalence of such behaviours.

2. Research Questions
The following research questions shall be answered in the study

1) Does training specific to excessive use of force help decrease the incidence of behaviours which precede such use of force
2) Can the behavioural effects of such training be sustained over time

3. Evaluation SiteSubjects of the Study
The subjects of the study shall be garnered through the use of purposive sampling, a non-probability sampling technique. The latter entails that the subject meet certain inclusion criteria to qualify as a subject (Creswell, 2008). In the case of the study, the police officer should 1) have at least a 2-year tenure 2) currently be in a field assignment or duty (vis--vis an administrative post) and 3) express willingness to participate in the study.

4. Evaluation Design

The study shall adopt a causal-comparative research design. It is causal since it aims to ascertain the effects of training specific to excessive use of force, on the related behaviours of police officers. It is likewise comparative because two groups of police officers will be used to determine the effects of training. One group shall act as a control group representing the absence of training while the experimental group shall involve subjects who shall undergo training. The effects of training over time shall likewise be ascertained, although the time frame for monitoring time effects is only at 8 weeks.

5. Population and Sample

The population of the study is the whole police force in Australia however, for pragmatic purposes, only a sample of police officers shall be enlisted in the study. To merit the use of parametric statistical tests (Punch, 2003), 30 officers shall requested to participate in the study by participating in the training focused on excessive use of police force. Another group of police officers shall serve as a control group, and shall not undergo training. The two groups shall be asked to complete a questionnaire asking them about the frequency with which they exhibit behaviours that predispose them to the use of excessive police force. It is expected that there are no significant differences in their scores, to establish that to begin with, the two groups are homogenous. The next phase shall involve the intervention itself, which shall be carried out by a police psychologist. All 30 officers in the experimental group shall undergo the training.

The same set of questionnaires shall be administered to the experimental group within 2, 4, 6, and 8 following the training session. This will be carried out to determine the outcomes of the training on behaviour over time and to ascertain their implications to the conduct of follow through training.

6. Variables and Data Collection Methods

There are two variables of interest in the study. These are 1) training and 2) behaviours that are deemed precursors to the use of excessive force. The independent variable, training, shall have two levels those without training, and those with training. The dependent variable, behaviours leading to excessive use of force, shall be measured through scores on a self-administered questionnaire documenting the frequency of these behaviors.

Scrivner (1994) comments that prior to an officers actual commitment of excessive use of force, there are behaviours that indicate a high likelihood of committing the latter. Since the researcher will probably have concerns about extracting complaints related to complaints on excessive use of force, a self-report questionnaire shall be used to indicate whether such symptoms are exhibited and at what frequency. This shall be done before and after the proposed training.

Secondary data collection shall be undertaken through the collation of journals, online references, and books related to the subject matter (Bryman  Bell, 2007). On the other hand, primary research shall also be carried out through the use of a self-constructed questionnaire which will be administered to the police officers. This shall be pilot tested, and established in terms of validity and reliability prior to deployment.

7. Brief Conclusion

The research shall be a causal-comparative research, which determines the effects of training specific to the use of excessive force by police officers. The independent variable is training, while the dependent variable shall be the behaviours that are deemed precursors to excessive use of force. The latter shall be measured through a self-administered questionnaire. Scores of the two groups on the questionnaire shall be statistically compared. Moreover, there shall also be comparisons of the scores of the experimental group at different points in time, to see the outcomes of training across time.

Based on national crime statistics for the last five years, has racial profiling contributed to an increase in successful arrest rates by police

Based on national crime statistics for the last five years, has racial profiling contributed to an increase in successful arrest rates by police

Brief Introduction
In Assignment 1 I discussed the practice of racial profiling. As defined by Amnesty International it is practice within which race can be used as a motivating factor in suspecting an individual (Amnesty international USA, 2010). While this evaluation study will be limited to issues of race profiling by law enforcement officials can occurs towards any ethnicity, nationality or religion.

African Americans are the primary target of this practice in the United States, they are stopped and searched more than any other ethnicity even though such practices infringe on their rights (Cole, 1999, 75). Though this was primarily done to stop crime the police have realized that such practices are ineffective and its presence today is merely the result of corrupting influences rather than policy (Cloud, S.,  Dale, 2001).

These policies changes were made as a result of studies in the 90s focused on whether or not such practices had any advantageous or detrimental effects (Data collection resource center, 2008). The aspect of the intervention that I intend to evaluate is whether or not the elimination of racial profiling has had the desired effect on certain population samples. Research questions will be stated as well as the most likely hypothesis which will arise from them. Further evaluation data will be provided which will be tailored to support this hypothesis and bring this study to its logical conclusion. 

2. Research questionsa) Have policy changes against racial profiling improved the outlook of law enforcement agencies

b) Do individuals feel safer knowing that law enforcement agencies no longer profile suspects
I hypothesize that the answers to both questions based on the population samples selected will offer a negative viewpoint to both questions. If African Americans are asked question (a) they will, given the information in the literature review answer in the negative, and if both groups are asked about question (b), experiences with 911 will cause them to respond in the negative as well, while Caucasians may provide either a positive or negative response to question (a). 

3. Evaluation site andor the subjects you will studyLocation of the evaluation site will be Times Square in New York City. The area is considered to be the central hub of market activity within the city, therefore, it is far more likely to encounter the population sample there and conduct the evaluation within a short time period. The subjects chosen are over 18 years of age and have at least a basic understanding of the concept of racial profiling. Of the basic concept of racial profiling is not known, a brief explanation can be given by the interviewer present. 

4. Evaluation design
The evaluation design will be created around the concept of a cross-sectional study. A cross sectional study is one in which two different sub sets of the same population can be surveyed to determine the outcome of interest. A survey questionnaire will be designed in order to ascertain whether the research hypothesis is conclusive. In order to facilitate the research the questionnaire will be divided into three portions focusing on biographic, demographic and research oriented questions. The survey questionnaire will serve as a primary source and the literature review will provide a secondary source. There will be a pre-test proposed in regards to the research questionnaire, which will allow the survey to focus on American citizens who have been living in the United States for the past 15 years. In order to attain pretest conditions biographic and demographic data will be employed and individuals who do not meet the criteria will be excluded. The objective of the survey will ask the research questions and attempt to elicit a direct answer on the part of the respondent. Each population sample chosen will have their results considered separately rather than as a whole. Due to the inherently limited nature of the study chosen, this process will be repeated several times over until valid statistical data can be extracted and a conclusive result can be reached. The study will begin by formulating the survey questionnaire focusing primarily on the sections mentioned above. This design is relatively inexpensive and due to the location chosen will take significantly less time to conduct. Risk factors and limitations are minimized due to limited and direct research questions and any follow up to this research does not invalidate the data already collected. Following the research a post-test will be conducted where secondary research sources will be employed and compared to the findings in order to conclude whether their viability is suspect. Secondary research sources may be compiled before or after the primary survey has been conducted and data relevant to the research questionnaire may be explored in the form of a hypothesis before being compared to the primary data collected. 

5. Population and sampleThe population sample will consist of individuals from two ethnicities. One hundred Caucasian individuals and one hundred African American individuals will be asked to take part in the study. The two samples selected in the area in question will provide the basis for random selection which will make them highly representative of their ethnicities. Two problems may occur however, one is non-response and the other give consideration to bias on the part of the participants. The problem of bias is inherent due to cultural and social differences between the two ethnicities. 

6. Variables and Data Collection methodsThe method of data collection as mentioned before will be in the form of a primary survey. The dependent and independent variables in this case include bias on the part of the respondent, on the part of the interviewer, geographical, monetary and time constraints. The sampling size also lends itself to sampling error due to its relatively large size. Additionally, it must be taken into account that the bias of the author of the report itself may affect the subjectivity of the study.

The interviewer taking the survey may show bias in his explanation of the concept of racial profiling. Approaching individuals on the street also lend themselves to be open to external factors which may cause them to change their answer. Such factors are not in the control of this study. It must also be taken into account that though the limited, direct research questions lend themselves to accuracy, the factors behind an individuals opinion cannot be discerned due to the inherently variable nature of such an undertaking. 

The pre-test conditions allows for a greater chance for picking out representatives of either ethnicities. Given the amount of tourism in New York City the exclusion of all foreigners in this study is warranted as well. However, though this methodology offers a larger population sample, the experiences of individuals living in different counties may account for different viewpoints on their part. Additionally, the conditions of the post-test leaves this research study open to all the limitations which plagued other similar studies chosen for the literature review, such limitations cannot be ignored or minimized in any shape or fashion. 

The relative inexpensive nature of the study, as well as loss of time constraints lends itself well to the questionnaire. Another thing that must be taken into account is the snapshot in time effect, essentially meaning that this study merely offers the opinion of a group of people at a particular point in time. The study itself can put the researcher at a disadvantage since casual conclusions cannot be made on the basis of each respondent, only tabulation of the data can provide such answers. This problem may cause the researcher to disprove the given hypothesis altogether without even realizing it (Babbie, 2009). 

7. Brief conclusion
In conclusion I believe that cross sectional studies will show that policy changes by police departments towards racial profiling have not changed their outlook in society in regards to certain ethnicities. Nor has the fear or the reasoning behind their initiation changed to a substantial level and affected public opinion. Though the practice itself is wrong and infringes on a persons rights, the general public may see its application as a proper means to an end. 

The Conference Community sentencing for juveniles is a strategy which helps in the rehabilitation process for these criminals. This technique helps the juvenile see the other side of the picture and make amends accordingly.

The problem that my intervention addresses is that whether these conference communities sentencing is actually working for the juveniles or not. The benefit that the community is receiving from this program is debatable. There is much literature available and each author has his own opinion. The main focus of our research is to see whether these programs are beneficial for all juveniles or a specific set of juveniles. 

From the literature review that we analyzed conferencing is effective in preventing recidivism but this can not be considered accurate as the authors supported restorative justice.

Research Questions
The research questions will revolve around the exhibited behaviour of the juvenile before the crime, after the charges and after the enrolment into the community program. Some of the questions will be
How many crimes has the juvenile committed after being enrolled in the community sentencing program

Has the behaviour of the juvenile changed after he was enrolled into the community sentencing program
Has the criminal record for small or big crimes decreased for the respective juvenile
Is it obvious by his behaviour that he realizes the consequences of his actions
Has the program benefitted the juvenile in anyway

Evaluation Site and Subjects
The subjects which will be interviewed in our study will belong to different backgrounds, race and religion so that we can get an unbiased result. The juveniles who will be questioned will have committed different types of crimes.

The victims will be questioned and asked to answer the survey so that we can get a better understanding of the emotional trauma that they have been through. This information can then be used to administer surveys for the families of the juveniles.

The evaluation site includes multiple institutions so that we can get a detailed analysis. There will be no specific settings in which people will be interviewed by the interviewer will ensure that there are no interruptions such as from mobile phones or doors opening and closing. There will be nobody else in the room except the interviewer and the interviewee. Also, all mobile phones, laptops as well as the office phone will be switched off and all calls will be held. 

Evaluation Design
The evaluation design will include secondary research as well as primary data analysis. The secondary data analysis will be in the form of a literature review in which articles will be analyzed on the basis of the information which relates to the intervention. Also, statistics will be gathered through secondary research from articles, community program records and police records.

The primary data will be collected through a field research study, i.e. interviews and surveys. People will be selected at random from the population and will be interviewed. The survey will be administered to people who have undergone the conference community sentencing process as well as experts in the area will be questioned in detail about their views.

The study will flow in the following steps literature review, questionnaire development, survey, detailed interviews, collection of the findings, data analysis and then recommendations and the findings from the research.

Population and Sample
The population is all those people who are juveniles and have been sentenced this sentencing includes all types, even the conference community sentencing. The population also includes the victims of these crimes.

The sample will be selected through the stratified random based sampling method. Juveniles who are a part of this conference community sentencing program will be interviewed and their families will have to fill out a questionnaire relating to their behaviour before and after the juveniles were introduced to the program.

Variables and Data Collection Method
The variables that we will be studying are the effect of race, religion, ethnic background and social status against the type of crimes that juveniles commit and whether these juveniles are better of in jail or in a community sentencing program. The sample will be chosen at random from different stratas, thus will be a representative of the different groups. The rate of dropout from these community programs will be gathered and their background will be checked against those who are still a part of the program and are fairing well.

Also, the statistics for those juveniles who experienced a remission to crimes will also be noted and their backgrounds will also be checked. These findings will show us whether the above factors have any impact on the behaviour of juveniles and their ability to undergo the complete rehabilitation process.

The data collection method that will be used is survey research and interviews. Survey research is easy to carry out and is inexpensive. Surveys can be administered to a large sample easily and simultaneously, thus it is not time consuming. The questions that are being asked in the survey are standardized thus there is no deviation from the topic. These standardizes questions makes it easier to collect and measure the data.

The drawbacks of a survey research are that there is no guarantee that all the people will answer all the questions, until the survey is administered by the interviewer who writes the answer. Also, there is sometimes too much standardization which does not help get accurate results. In such situations, people might not tell the truth in fear of bringing harm to their children who are the juveniles. (CSU)

The drawbacks of in depth interviews are that they are time consuming and expensive to administer. The interviewer needs to be trained so that he or she does not ask any leading questions and does not show bias when questioning the sample. The benefits are that in depth interviews allow the researcher to gather more information than that which would be gathered through a survey. The type of information collected is qualitative, while in a survey it is usually quantitative.

In two weeks time, she will be reunited with her man after a three years jail term. Rosaline made every preparation possible starting from thoroughly cleaning every corner of her house to the compound. Her excitement was beyond measure and she anxiously counted every day that passed. However, her excitement was short lived. She was woken up one day by a ring that required her to immediately report to Reformation Maximum Prison. Without taking a shower, she dressed hastily and was off. It was too sad as truth dawned on her. She would never again set her eyes on her beloved husband. He was found dead in a cell and reports said that he had been murdered by other prisoners for not adhering to inmate code. After days of mourning, Rosaline resolved to find out what was contained in the inmate code that caused her husbands death. Prisons welcome all sorts of humanity despite the differences in, age, colour, religion, gender or character. One can easily find being a candidate of prison in committing a felony and even worse subjected to the inmate code of conduct. This essay therefore seeks to explore the inmate code in relation to the prisoners.

The informal organization and hierarchy in prisons
 Man is a social being and a prisoner is no exception. Irrespective of the differences that occur, prisoners form social organizations. Power is given to some people crowning the now officials with recognition and empowering them to make interventions in cases of wing problems (Crewe, 2008, Subcultures).  A new coming inmate has to show surrender to the prisons officials and at times in very humiliating ways. The newcomer is stripped naked before the head and forced to bow in total submission. With the anus now completely exposed, a finger is inserted to find out whether the prisoner has any hidden drugs in the rectum. This operation is, in the real sense, carried out to leave the newcomer terrified, humiliated and of course submissive to the seniors (Dorpat, 2007). Power can also be granted to prisoners not because of their influence but as a result of their ability to obtain and give rare goods as well as services. This is practical in England, and not to be left out in Wales, where hard drugs and especially heroin smuggled inside prison, can easily make one climb up the prison ladder of power. Others can earn their power by their negative trait of aggression. (Crewe, 2008, Subcultures). The females are placed below men in the hierarchy (Wellford, 1967).

Inmate Code in Operation
Just like in any other social institution, these informal organizations are also controlled by a set of rules and regulations these are normative elements that deal with wrong doers. However, the norms come from different sources. The prison administration has its own norms that prisoners are supposed to adhere to. The other is a set of norms designed by the inmate themselves and this is known as the inmate code (Wellford, 1967). Inmate code therefore can be defined as a set of maxims, values and norms formulated and accepted by inmates to guide their conduct in the prison life (Crewe, 2008 Inmate code). Here, inmate code will be put in use to mean the normative element adoption by the inmates or to put it in one word, prisonization (Wellford, 1967).The inmate code was in 1940 described for the first time by a person by the name Clemmer (Wilson, 1986).

Inmate code differs from administrative patterns. In adhering to the inmate code, an inmate rejects the defined code of conduct by the administration.  The free world that if full of ambiguities, however permits a person to lie within the range of the specific and the general conduct. In behind bars, the inmates are to either follow the administrative or inmate rules but not both. There exists conflict when the two are in operation. The administrative rules as Wellford spells out in his journal, Factors Associated with Adoption of the Inmate Code a Study of Normative Socialization, demands the prisoner to

(1) divulge any information he has about another inmates deviant behaviour, (2) give support to the treatment facilities under the motivation of bettering himself, (3) work diligently at each job assigned on the assumption that his work may prepare him for a future trade, (4) divulge any information he has on escape plans or the smuggling into the institution of goods or money, and (6) refrain from forming close associations with other inmates (Wellford, 1967).

The prisoners code is very negative towards the above stated principles. For instance, it emphasizes on refusing to inform about fellow inmates and gives more strength to formation of inmate groups. This is a clear indication that administration and prisoners codes of conduct fiercely conflict the two cannot go together (Wellford, 1967). The inmate code seeks to oppose the set goals and values of prison authorities. In addition, the inmate code strongly prohibits a bend to the set prisons conventions and strictly calls for loyalty to the inmate code and group at large. The code prescribes that none of the inmates information should be leaked outside their boundaries and whoever dares is, as Dorpat puts it in his book, Crimes of punishment Americas Culture of Violence, subjected to brutal attacks. The inmate who is not cooperative is termed as a rat or a squealer (Dorpat, 2007). Inmate code also defines the behaviour boundaries of an inmate who, in case of violation, is punished by other inmates. The punishments vary from one codes breakage to another and may include violence to an extent of murder and ostracism. Inmate code value masculinity and shouts in rebuking weakness (Dorpat, 2007).

As Freeman puts it in his book, correctional organizational and management public policy challenges, behaviour, and structure the inmate relies heavily on exaggerated images of masculinity that encourage macho behaviour while condemning weakness, such as compassion, caring, sharing feelings and emotions, or expressing personal pain.(Freeman, 1999).The inmate code stipulates that inmates should be loyal to each other and not nosing others businesses and avoiding exploiting other inmates (Freeman, 1999). It also states that the inmate also referred to as the stand-up inmate should never whine, sob plead guilty or try to seek favour with the administration by pleasing them either by working or accepting their opinions (Freeman, 1999).

According to Thomas, Blomberg  Lucken, 2000, in their book, American penology A history of control, in the inmate code of conduct

Inmates  were not to interfere with other inmates interest(dont be nosey, dont have a loose lip, keep off a mans back, dont put a guy on the spot), exploit fellow inmate(dont break your word, dont welsh on debts), weaken(dont whine or cop out) or be a sucker(guards were not to be trusted)  and the inmate was always to side with the other inmates as a real man who pulled his own time and was viewed by other inmates as a man of integrity and autonomy(Thomas, Blomberg  Lucken,  2000).
Dorpat also in his book, Crimes of punishment Americas Culture of Violence, points out these to be the major inmate codes (Dorpat, 2007).

The start of the inmate code in prisons
The Inmate Code which entails inmate own made rules, starts with the inmates admission to jail. They are pushed to accept the place they hold in prison as inferiors according to a formed hierarchy. Previously, out of the prison life, they were known by a name but in prison they are given a number. Their good clothes are replaced by prison uniforms. They are never free and are forced to adopt the rules of prison. This brings the inmate to total surrender of personal autonomy which together with several changes can harm the identity of the victim. To compensate the lost personal identity, prisoners come up with organizations that are informal. They formulate inmate codes that govern their behaviours and through this they achieve cohesiveness as they can identify with others who are also going through the same kind of alienation (Dorpat, 2007).

The overall torture of behind bars causes prisonization. The codes help them to reduce deprivation feeling that is brought about by prisoners being dispossessed of goods and services, heterosexual relationships and autonomy. As a result of deprivation, inmates develop frustration, hatred, stress and negativity of prison and its guards. To fight away this feeling, they form an inmate subculture (Dorpat, 2007). By showing respect, loyalty and generosity towards their fellow inmates, by not being exploitative, avoiding coming into negative terms with others interests and  by being resistant towards the prison staff , inmates develop a common identity (Crewe, 2008 Inmate code).

Morris  Rothman (1995) in, The Oxford history of the prison The Practice of Punishment in Western society, calls this the deprivation or adaptation model in which the inmates have to follow codes to enable them survive the deprivations found in the institutions (Morris  Rothman, 1995). On the other hand, the inmate code can also play a role in hurting the self esteem of a prisoner. There is a negative correlation between self esteem and inmate code identity. Identifying oneself with this code can push one to misconducts like defying the prison authorities (Carriere, 1996).  The time that a prisoner spends in prison, the level of adopting the inmate code (prisonization), self-esteem changes together with self disclosure are all associated with the deprivation model (White  Yvette, 1981).

Apart from the toxic environment of prison, the inmate code could have its root from inmates live before the incarceration. The behaviours, attitudes and values, could have been from prisoners street lives as members of a gang or basically as criminals (Dorpat, 2007). For Morris and Rothman, it is an importation model of corrections that was imported by organized criminals and professional thieves into the institutions (Morris  Rothman, 1995).

The adoption of the inmate code
There exists a variety of factors that lead to the inmate code adoption.  Of the factors, the ones that look more important are sentence length, phase of institutional career and lastly the type of social criminal (Wellford, 1967). Garrity in his book, Effects of Length of Incarceration upon Parole adjustment and Estimation of Optimum Sentence, observes the longer one is exposed to prisoners code, greater are the chances for its incorporation. The increase in time positively reinforces the inmate code. However according to the researches that were carried out, there was a low and almost insignificant relationship between the time one served in prison and the adoption level (Wellford, 1967).

Phase of institutional career in relation to adoption of the inmate code is a factor of time but in a different perspective, prisonization was found to precede linearly and also u-shaped style. Prizonization is at the lowest at the early and at the late phases of the prison life. That is to say, the first six months after joining the institution and the last six months before moving out of prison. The phase at the middle is the highest phase of inmate code adoption statistically, the outstanding differences were significant. The findings made here were being explained in regard to the reasons of inmate code development. The inmate code was founded to alleviate the pain caused by imprisonment. Therefore, it seems to be acceptable at the point at which prison was unbearable in the middle phase of the institutional career (Wellford, 1967).

Criminal social type can also be looked as a determinant of prisonization. Using the method of sociometry, there are a variety of roles a prisoner plays, which are not inmate code oriented. The roles can also be grouped using the prisoners code in case of right guy and square john roles as they are known. Right guy or in other word anti-social inmates are highly prisonized. The square john, pro-social inmates, is not prizonized normatively (Wellford, 1967).

It can therefore be concluded that inmate code affects prisoners in different ways. The differences are acclaimed to the background, attitudes, values, life philosophy, and status and overall roles played by the prisoner.  However, the greatest problem is determining which method to be applied in establishing the role played by a particular inmate, the variable has not been related directly with prisonization and this result is emphatic situational effects and not the individuals characteristics to explain inmate code and the adoption degree. Studies show that two factors are related to the inmate code adoption despite the fact that they are independent entities. These factors are phase of institutional career and criminal social type. Their relationship and at the same time difference suggests the need of a complex theory (Wellford, 1967).

A theory derivational theory, can better explain the inmate code adoption. The inmate, after entering prison, is exposed to many pains and to mitigate the pains, prisoners turn to the so called inmate culture. In the explanation of the phase institutional career also referred to as the U curve, by use of derivational model, there is an important aspect that will be left out the inmates activity before incarceration which will influence hisher adoption to prisoners code(Wellford, 1967). This is because the code mirrors the general sub-culture of the criminals. It is therefore important to marry the phase institutional career and the criminal social type in relation to the adoption of the inmate code. It looks more logical in the assumption that depriving nature of prisons, situational element, and the inmates characteristic affects the degree of inmate code adoption (Wellford, 1967).

However, the fact that inmates are not all highly prisonized is an indication that the culture of the inmates is dissimilar. The picture that is seen in the inmate community is one that fails to have cohesiveness but organized in conflicting roles. It is not right to assume inmate community as a sub-societies series because there exists a consensus between certain elements in the prisoners code. The best way is to look at inmate society without basing it in terms of organization-disorganization. It should be visualized as a unit with its organization lying between the extremes (Wellford, 1967).

To describe this kind of organization, a concept near-group can be used. The near-group has three organizational levels. First level is made up of near-group leaders they work for the organizational maintenance.  Second level carries the claimers of affiliation with the organization but is only active in response to emotional needs. Level three has those whose participation in the near-group is occasional they do not consider themselves members. They lie at the peripheral. Practically, in prison, this structure is evident. Inmates who are anti-social are in level one and the pro-social lie around near-group periphery (Wellford, 1967).The differences in the degree of inmate code adoption, commitment and identification with the culture of the inmates can therefore be well explained by the near-group concept. In regard to this, how is the phase of institutional career related to the rate of prisonization Derivational model correctly points out that all prisoners follow U pattern in prisonization. The adoption of the inmate code is according to what has been discussed earlier on mainly determined by individuals characteristic before being a victim of criminal subculture. This may differ depending on the persons stage in the cycle of deprivation (Wellford, 1967).

The complexity of the inmate code
Though the inmate code is a characteristic of every prison, it may be complex than one may imagine. It is full of ambiguity and is more negotiable than the ordinary rules. There appears to be no single code despite of its simplicity that is agreed upon by all prisoners. For instance, all inmates support that informing is an unforgivable crime. However, informing may be justified in situations such as when life of a prisoner is at risk. In the juvenile prisons, there are rules against vulnerability that leads to the punishment of the weak. On the other hand, in adults these norms are termed as exploitative. A group of the inmates will term charging interests on loans given to be a good business which is in contrary with others who consider it as a breakage to the cohesiveness of the inmates. These varying interpretations of the prison codes make the inmate code complex (Crewe, 2008 Inmate code).

Another complexity of the inmate code is that some prisoners are very loyal to the codes and they abide by them. They are wholly committed to the inmate code. Another lot of inmates will show no or little cooperation as far as the inmate code is concerned. Another group still will be frequent violators of the code. These are the ones who hold allegiance to individuals from both inside and out of prison (Crewe, 2008 Inmate code). Prisons are not full of fools as some people may conclude there are very intelligent men and women. The intelligent inmates in a number of occasions use the inmate code as a toll of exploiting other inmates, for example, discouraging inmates from giving any information of their deeds. Indeed, the conclusion that the inmate code can alleviate the inmates frustrations may be incorrect conforming may even cause more frustrations. Prisoners may be required to suppress their bitter emotions as a way of not showing weakness and this causes them pain. Generally, this makes the inmate code very hard to understand (Crewe, 2008 Inmate code).

Adherence to or violation of the inmate code
The inmate codes have for a long time been used in various jail institutions by prisoners and this is proves that the code are not easy to break (Bell, 2002). It remains to be a very powerful socialization agent. Inmates who go by the set inmate codes earn themselves respect and the weak or disloyal ones are looked down upon (Crewe, 2008 Subcultures). However, it is easier said than done. Adherence to the inmate code is an individualistic Orientation and many of the prisoners find it easy in saying that they will comply with the rules than the practical adherence. Some prisoners acquire alienative responses towards the imprisonment pains (Thomas, Blomberg  Lucken, 2000).

The violation of the prison code differs. Those who violated communication code by giving information to the guards are branded rat and squealer. The one who always supported the guards was referred to as centre man. Another violated the code by applying force to take from weaker prisoners. He or she was not saved either and was regarded as a gorilla. A merchant manipulated others by economic exploitation. Others still, the fags practiced homosexuality that was not an acceptable ordeal according to the inmate code of conduct.  Wolves caused aggression and punks submitted sexually. The dreaded ball busters were disobedient and constantly crossed with the guards leading to the overall punishment of the prisoners (Thomas, Blomberg and Lucken, 2000). The violation of the inmate code result in a variety of punishments which include corporal punishment and more scaring murder (Mays  Winfree, 2009).

There is however a notable difference between adherence to inmate code and gender. There is no solidarity in womens prisons. The females form pseudo-familia relationships in the prisons. Their primary relationships replace their inmate code loyalty (Wilson, 1986). Being assimilated into this subculture in females is determined by importation. They in this case assimilate more to the inmate code than the males (Wilson, 1986).

Effects of the inmate code
The inmate code may to some extent have a positive effect of maintaining social contacts in the prison keeping inmate solidarity (Dorpat, 2007). The inmate code may also negatively affect the lives of the prisoners to a large extent such that it becomes part of their lives even after their sentence posing a great threat to the community (Freeman, 1999). Sykes in his book, The society of captives A study of maximum-security prison notes that  the trauma of being designated one of the very worst human beings in the world left prisoners with life long scars  (Sykes, 1958).Inside prison, the inmate is subjected to severe torture, what Nimmo refers to as pains of imprisonment (Nimmo, 1980).

Conclusion
We are living in an evolving world and not to be left behind, the inmate code as Freeman notes is continuously evolving such that what was contained in the inmate code of 1950s is not what is there today (Freeman, 1999).The inmate code, though in great opposition of the prisons administrative rules helps to control behaviour in prisons and this makes it, just like any other set of norms, very important despite the odds.

The two instances at the beginning of the paragraph show that people can become obsessed with victimizing others simply because they have a dislike for them. Through these articles it is also possible to see how people can be inhuman towards their fellow humans. They treat them like animals or trash and can do anything just to make themselves happy and satisfied. Repeat victimization can be clearly understood in these two first instances. Therefore, according to me, repeat victimization is doing something harmful or hurtful to someone on several occasions for some kind of revenge and just to satisfy oneself. It is also a series of events that always end up requiring police action.

To prevent a series of repeated offences, it sometimes requires resources to set up a scene whereby the criminals will be caught and these are called sting operations. To set up the operations it therefore needs resources and time. Sometimes it is also hard to predict the next place of target since the police may not have enough information to determine the next events. In the efforts of trying to prevent such crimes of repeat victimization, the power of the police has been doubled and this has also contributed to the doubling of crimes. When trying to deal with repeat victimization, victims tend to be elusive and therefore make it difficult to solve any problems. 

The theory by Agnew focuses on negative relationship with others that results to depression, anger, fear or disappointment. The subject of the discussion question is relevant in the aspect of youths engaging in crimes as a result of strain. Youths are the most affected individuals because they have the capacity to explore the world in many areas. A young person who has undergone a lot of stress and strain can turn out to crimes as a means of seeking comfort. Crimes like stealing, drug trafficking, murder, rape and engaging in organised gang activity are linked with depression and strain (Agnew, 1994).

Lack of employment among the youths in developing nations has been a major reason that has depressed the youths. The youths therefore develop negative attitude towards other people and engage in crimes so as to earn a living. The societal structural level is another major concept that relates to strain among youths and criminology. The society is supposed to teach their young people good morals and create a strong relationship with other people. Once the society fails to develop such morals, the crime level among the youths has to rise (Agnew, 1994). Individuals have different means of satisfying their own needs and the important aspect of this element is to develop the right procedures that will help to reduce the rate of crime among the young generation.

Is there value in using biological or biosocial concepts in criminology in contrast to adhering to classical theory

Introduction
Classical theory started way back in 1700s. The founders of the US depended wholly on the economic theories proposed by John Locke together with the classical theories of social groups and government. The classical school was not focused in studying individual criminals as compared to crime, law making and the legal process. Before this period, most of the issues on law and judicial system were closely associated with religious structures together with those of the monarchy or aristocratic rulers. Although there were no written laws during this period, execution was based on interpretation and reckless directions of the ruling class. The laws were used and applied to the people not belonging to the ruling class (Walsh  Beaver, 2008).

The law was used to protect the church and uphold the power of the church and state. The people who were accused of breaking the law were punished through torture. The accusations were done in secret hearing settings and private trials and they faced with harsh approval. The law was also used as a silencing tool to suppress those who were against the church or the ruling class (Walsh  Beaver, 2008).

Classical theory
It is based mainly on the individual and choice. It based on the belief that each person makes a choice depending on the cost and benefit of their actions. The classical theory is used in explaining the human behavior in terms of efforts to maximize pleasure and reduce situations of pain and this is the logic behind the concept of deterrence. John Locke had a lot of influence on the drafting of the American constitution and so does the new philosophies on human rights and the existence of government (Walsh  Beaver, 2008).

Political belief before the emergence of this theory was in support of the idea that people served the need of the government. The principle of the new social contract where by the government was to serve the needs of its subjects lead to another idea that backed up ideas that an individual submitted to the authority of the state only amount of liberty which is enough to ensure protection of the rights of other citizens. The emergence of this new contract between the people and the government was as a result of the rising middle class and was at conflict with the ruling class and those who had been at the helm of power.

The classical theory was focused on the law to protect the rights of people and society and the main aim was to discourage criminal activity. According to the classical law, it is the responsibility of the citizens to behave morally, act responsibly, and evaluate the consequences of any action before engaging in the real act. This implies that all actions are rational and each is done as a result of free will (Walsh  Beaver, 2008). Due to this belief, classical criminologists condemn harsh punishment as being evil, and should only be used to avoid or discourage greater evil. In offering punishment for any wrongful doing, the amount of pain suffered should exceed the pleasure gained as a result of the action (Walsh  Beaver, 2008).

In this theory, individual deterrence was ensured through imposition of pain which exceeds the pleasure gained and this was aimed at making the people to make the right decision. On the part of society, deterrence was achieved by people observing the consequences which awaited or befell those people who broke the law. Classical theory is not in support of capital punishment because its use put the state in a position of a dictator and accepting murder.

The results of classical theory are evident in French and American Revolution. Both countries respected the quality of people, the right to life and freedom, fairness in the administration of justice and restriction on the actions of the state. The American criminal law is mostly classical, and has great emphasis on responsibility for the actions in the process of law. Currently, a revival of conservative policies has been executed with the use of punishment as a deterrent and assumptions that all the crimes have been rational and intentional (Walsh  Beaver, 2008).

Biosocialbiological theory
Biological and biosocial studies have resulted in surprising discoveries in the field of criminology. Development of criminal traits has been attributed to genetic factors and biological harms such as exposure to toxins or head injury. These traits predispose an individual to criminal activities. Delinquents and criminals have been found to have damage to certain areas in their brain or exposure to harsh environment during their childhood. There are also organic differences found. Children who were raised in urban settings polluted by lead and other toxic industrial waste were found to have lower cognitive ability and some degree of brain damage. Some of these children have other disorders like attention deficit disorder (ADD) or learning difficulties. These problems can result in learning or socialization difficulties, together with high tendencies to involve in reckless behaviors and problems in carrying forward pleasure for a long term fulfillment later in life (Walsh  Beaver, 2008).

The major controversy revolving around the biological and psychological factors is the identification of the roles played by both factors in human behavior and at the same time dismissing the fact that the same factors are responsible for delinquent behaviors or they increase a persons tendencies to involve in delinquent behaviors (Walsh  Beaver, 2008).

The initial scientific methods and theories which were employed in explaining criminal behaviors and to point out the capability and prevention of criminality were very crude. The methods involved measuring of the size of the skulls, foreheads, and other strange body shapes. Currently there is immense knowledge on the effects of the environment on an individual and group development and tendencies to develop delinquent and criminal behaviors (Walsh  Beaver, 2008).

The biological and psychological explanations can be used to determine and explain the criminal behavior on a person or on a group of people living in a particular neighborhood. This method leads to focus on individual but not the societal condition that nurtured the development of delinquent behavior. The fear in this method is that social policies and attempts geared at correction and alleviation of bad social conditions will be abandoned while at the same time much control will be put against some people who are deemed to be prone to delinquent or criminal behavior. The application of this policy is likely to result in use of eugenics and the awakening policies that accompany it such as forced sterilization which was experienced in the early 20th century and crimes against humanities as was observed by the Nazis. The use of biological and biosocial approach may make the ruling class to impose control and discrimination against individuals who are purported to be risky (Walsh  Beaver, 2008).

Since these loopholes in this theory can be used as excuses for abuse, the researchers need to exercise watchfulness and caution to avoid the discoveries being used to revert or inhibit social policies. The increasing studies on twins and adoption are very useful in determining the environmental effect on individuals behavior. According to nature versus nurture debate, it has become obvious that both genetics and environment have varied effects on an individuals behavior based on the persons vulnerability to delinquent behavior (Walsh  Beaver, 2008). There is also need for extensive study on brain chemistry to explain how the brain functions in delinquent and criminal individuals. Still there is also need to determine how scientists and researchers will describe and define how these aspects influence delinquent behavior (Walsh  Beaver, 2008).

Conclusion
The system which is likely to be adopted by criminal justice system to control or prevent crime is determined by politics and economics involved in the approach. When the classical theory which states that all behavior are as a result of choice and control, the punishment passed in this case will be aimed at changing the behavior patterns and ways of making decisions in individuals who have committed or expected to involve in criminal offence. If the biosocial or biological approach is adopted, there will be more studies on genetics, biological and environmental effects that make some individuals vulnerable to involving in criminal activities. Adoption of this approach could either be dangerous or exciting development for humanity. This will solely depend on the intentions of those responsible for execution and funding of the research programs.