Criminology

Houston is the largest city in Texas and the fourth largest city in the United States. According to 2009 census, the city had a population of approximately 2.2 million people and the city occupies a space of 600 square miles. Houston is a multi-cultural state due to the fact that the city is a host to many academic institutions and many industries. Houston city has large number of young population and this has been contributed to by an influx of immigrants in the state. More than 90 languages are spoken in Houston (Miller, and Larry, 2008)

The city is ranked third among the cities with large number of Hispanics and Mexican-American in the United States. The city scores high number of Hispanics in the state of Texas. The city also has high numbers of illegal emigrants who mostly reside in the Greater Houston area. Houston has the largest number of Nigerian-American population in United States and they constitute more than 2 of the population.

The city a median household income of 36,616 where as the median income for a family is 40,443.females have a median income of 27,371 while men has a median of 32,084. 16 percent of families and 19 percent of the population live below the poverty line. The city is home to many emigrants from Asia with more than 30,000 emigrants in 2007.

Crime in Houston increases as one goes to the outer highways. It is therefore advised that people walk with care when taking highways in the outskirts of the city since harassment tend to be more common in areas that are outlining Interstate Highway 45from Southern Beltway to the northern belt. Crimes in these areas include shootings, muggings, and robberies. Many people in Houston tend to ignore threats but people are mostly advised that some to accomplish their threats.

The most notorious district that people are advised to avoid is the Westchase which consist of Hillcroft past Westheimer and Daury Ashford. Mission Bend is safe and all is required is caution. Richmond and the West Oaks area hwy 6 all the way to 1 Stebner Airline is generally safe (Miller, and Larry, 2008). Staying in Hotels near Williowbrook, Tombal, Cy-Fair, Spring and the surrounding area is relatively safer since there are fewer panhandlers as compared to areas around Galleria.

Bellaire and West University are also good areas but people are advised to avoid Beechnut, Chimney Rock and 610. The more one moves from town, the it becomes risky to walk at night. Areas such as Wards, Gulfton, Fondren South West and Sharptown are risky at night and it even advised to walk with caution during the day.

Houston was ranked 46th city in United States in murder cases as per 2005 and the rate of murder per capita rate is 16.3. The murder rate for the city is ranked third among cities in the United States with a population of more than 1,000,000. Even though cases of murder have been on the increase, non-violent crimes have significantly reduced by 2 in 2005. Some media sources have attributed the increasing crime rate on the aftermaths of Katrina.

Houston is also one of the major drug hubs in the United States traffickers use the city to supply marijuana, cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, and MDMA to distributors in other cities in the United States. Houston is in top position in state of Texas in auto-theft. In 2007 alone, 31,000 motor vehicles were stolen in the metropolitan area of Houston (Wallman, 2006)

Due to the mix in population in the city, there is high rate of crimes and this has given the police department to control crime. Illegal emigrants in Houston makes crime rates hard to control.

The issue of deterring crime will be based on a number of factors. In some instances, it may be possible for a parole office to effectively present deterrent messages to certain criminals based on the criminals desire to reform. In some instances, criminals may see the proverbial error of their ways and reform. Others simply may find the pain of prison to be a bit too much to bear so they will opt to cease their behavioral patterns. But, not all criminals are willing to modify their behavior in any substantial way. They simply may have personality disorders that prevent them from rationally reversing their attitudes towards being repeat offenders. So, with some offenders, focused deterrence can certainly deliver highly positive results. With other offenders, however, the ability to reverse their behavior may prove next to impossible. Again, it depends on the background and psychological makeup of the offender in question.

For a more effective crime prevention strategy, psychiatric treatment may be required to deal with the underlying personality disorders which cause the crime. If the underlying issues that are harming the criminals ability to see what heshe is doing wrong are treated, the potential to effective deter the criminal can be enhanced. Again, some criminals may be of such a perverse mental state that threats of punishment can prove ineffective. However, if proper psychological treatment is employed, a breakthrough may be possible. This, in turn, could impart a certain clarity of thinking that might lead the individual to seriously weighing the consequences of punishment when considering committing a crime.

While one cannot say with definitive clarity that psychiatric treatment will definitely reverse the criminals potential to commit an unlawful act, such treatment could lead to the person rethinking the process due to fear of punishment.

In her article, A Glimpse Inside, the author explains that the goal of her project was to determine from their perspective, why rapists commit their sexual violence against women, because prior to the 1970s feminist movement, there was no research on the issue as the male
dominated field had not considered it as a serious problem.
       
The focus of the article is a description of the difficulties in methodology, and the only conclusion offered is that  the sampling can be divided into three groups, that is, the admitters  who acknowledge their rape but down play its brutality and sensitive details such as the victim  being a relative, the deniers who admit sexual contact but deny or excuse the rape saying for example she led me on, and the outright deniers who deny any sexual contact claiming for example mistaken identity.
           
The author explains that she used interviews rather than other techniques such as questionnaires, because this method better enables her to judge whether sensitive information provided is truthful. However she points out a number of problems and limitations, resulting from a low reporting and even lower conviction rate. Rapes committed by relatives in particular tend to be under reported because of family shame and other reasons, and of course researches cant interview this kind of undetected group.

The men incarcerated are more likely to be strangers to the victim, use severe violence, have also committed other crimes and are from low income minorities. She describes the need to make inmates participation confidential and voluntary, and to gain their trust resulting in a greter likelihood of getting accurate information. She also admits she initially had some concern as a female in the very male macho prison environment, but in the end felt it was an advantage as men are more likely to express their true feelings to a woman  as they are less likely to consider her as a rival or threat. Also as a researcher, she is more likely to gain trust than the authoritarian guard or other prison official. On the other hand she points out the dangers of too much rapport, as inmates then expect favors which the researcher should not deliver. Finally she states that she is constrained by the restrictions of the National Research Act  which provides protection for subjects, from other things for inappropriate use of the data obtained. Thus prisoners are protected from repercussions because of confessing previously unreported crimes unless they are planned future events and therefore pose a danger to prospective victims.
       
If one reads this article with the expectation that it will provide insight into why men rape, they will be disappointed. However if it is read simply as an explanation of the methodology involved,  the problems encountered with this and the steps taken to reduce them as much as possible, I believe it shows that the author attempted to be as scientific as possible.

This research paper provides extensive information on two of the fiercest natural disasters of 2009, namely Mount Redoubt Volcanic eruption in Alaska  LAquila Earthquake, Italy. This paper includes a detailed description  facts about the two disasters. It also provides information on the agencies, responsible to monitor these catastrophes. Lastly the paper includes an opinion on how technology could be used to serve better communication, for those who are hit by the disaster  for the central government to contact the affected area.

Redoubt Volcano, Alaska
The first natural disaster of this research happens to be a huge explosive volcanic eruption, occurred on 22nd March09. 1038 pm, in the mountainous regions of Alaska, USA. As observed this Mountain termed as Mount Rebound had been showing continuous disruptions from 23rd January09. Officials reported it to be a drastic emulsion, similar to that of 1989 volcanic eruption in Alaska.

Mount Redoubt has had a fierce history when it comes to natural disasters. It has experienced the most severe plate movements and has been a reason for a number of tsunamis, earthquakes  and volcanic eruptions. It has busted to ashes  fumes almost five times in the past 110 years, i.e. in 1902, 1922, 1966, 1989 and, most recently, in2009.

Redoubt Volcano last year too, was one of the huge of its kinds. It started with blowing volcanic substances (Lava, Fumes  Gases) to the height of 20,000 feet initially and rose up to 50,000 feet in the next twenty minutes. The volcano has said to be exploded five times in a time if 24 hours, rising the fumes up to 9 miles in the air ( HYPERLINK httpwww.suite101.comprofile.cfmME_mkfleury Fleury , 2009).

As reported two planes had been almost crashed due to the gaseous eruptions. People living in Alaska were not much affected yet, small communities living at the north of the site of this eruption, experienced fumes  falling of gray dust in their areas.

The agency responsible for detecting Mount Redoubt is called the Alaska Volcano Observatory, which is a sub unit of Alaskas Division of Homeland Security. This division provides services against all acts of terrorism hazards and takes action against any unforeseen circumstances. This agency has been given the charge by the city Govt. of Alaska. Under the Alaska Disaster Act this agency is responsible to provide protection  precautionary measures against all natural hazards (Alaska Volcano Observatory, n.d.).

Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) had observed disturbances two months before the final disruptions. Constant monitoring unveiled that the disruption is similar to that of 1989. AVO has a unique technology of Aviation Color Code whereby three color codes are used to indicate the position of the volcanic eruption. The Green color denotes safe clear position. Orange is a color that refers to severe threat that requires close observation  Red is the ultimate explosion color (Alaska Volcano Observatory, n.d.).
Once the mountain started showing signs, AVO had changed the Aviation Color Code to Orange and placed web cams to carry out close monitoring. All these codes denoted that this volcano was ready to erupt any minute.

In February, AVO set out to more close observations. Increased numbers of webcams were installed around the affected area. Censors were placed near the mountain and after every three days, planes flew above to observe, the level of gases coming out ( HYPERLINK httpwww.suite101.comprofile.cfmME_mkfleury Fleury , 2009).

Systematic changes were observed during February  March, whereby the tremors slowed down or intensified at an irregular pace. Thus AVO adjusted their codes  monitoring activities accordingly. It was not until 21st March09 when the earthquakes intensified and there came out emulsions of gases  gray dust.

On 22nd March, the codes were changed to Red, which meant that a hazardous volcanic eruption is in the pipeline. Accordingly news had been spread across the city  19 flights had been cancelled immediately to avoid any disastrous situation ( HYPERLINK httpwww.suite101.comprofile.cfmME_mkfleury Fleury , 2009).

Technology could play an immense role when we talk about communication at the time of such catastrophes. At the time of this volcanic eruption, people at the north of Alaska could have taken measures to communicate at other regions of the state. Regular radiotelevision warnings  information could play as a precautionary element for the affected people.

People could use walky talkies to develop communications among their loved ones as during all such catastrophes, telephone lines are usually disrupted damaged. In situations like Mount Redoubt Volcanic eruptions, foreign aid organizations should use locators to find all those who are waiting for help and aid.

Similarly, just as AVO is using its extensive research system to predict and monitor volcanic eruptions, it should also set out direct software linkages to inform the Central Government Authorities about the in time responses of the rising danger of any natural disaster. AVO can develop a closely monitored  confidential website connected to the central authority, which informs them about the position of the expected disaster. This would help in taking precautionary measures for those who might get affected.

LAquila Earthquake, Italy
The Second natural disaster of this research paper is the LAquila Earthquake, which occurred in the central region of Italy. It occurred on 6th April09 at 623am. People in the central city woke up due to intense tremors of shaking earth, at the rate of 6.3 (at Richter scale).

This city of Italy had experienced a huge damage, approximately 30,000-50,000 buildings have been toppled, raiding the death toll to 287, 1000 injured  leaving 40,000, homeless.

This earthquake was not only felt in the city but to other neighboring parts of the country too. A village called Onna, located six miles from LAquila had disappeared completely as a result of this earthquake. Rome had also reported to feel the tremors of this horrifying catastrophe.

The situation did not finish after the actual disaster occurred. The after effects were immense. Continuous tremors o up to 5.3 on the scale, had been experienced. This resulted in collapsing of more buildings which were already weak after facing the major earthquake.

Apart from the huge damage caused, this disaster also caused loss of some immense architecture of Italy.

The third floor of National Museum collapsed that was located in a 16th Century Fort. Domes of several ancient churches turned to piles of rubble, destroying the cultural remains of the city.
This earthquake was caused due to a fault activity in the Apennine Mountains. The upset  strong compressions between the Africa  Eurasia plates resulted in extreme tremor that hit fiercely in this central city of Italy. The upset in these mountains is nothing new. A series of eight earthquakes have stroked since 1997, in different areas around this range.

The Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV), had been closely monitoring the disruptions between the plates of the Apennine mountain range, since 1997. This agency is renowned for its continuous 24 hour observation through a network of censors, covering Italy, Rome, Milano and other countries. INGV works with close cooperation with the Civil Protection Authorities, Ministry of Defense  Ministry of Education of Italy.

The agency had predicted a jerk of disaster in this area back in 2008 however as per the officials they could not predict the exact time  moment it would occur. Lack of communication  any such previous happening retained people and the local government to take precautionary steps (Tremors,2009).

Another myth that prevailed in Italy  many other foreign countries was the prediction of Dr. Giampaolo Giuliani, who was in close connections with the Italian National Research Council. It is said that he discovered radan emissions and tried to give a warning before the final disaster. However the state Government continued to ignore the warning saying that it had not been justified.

Technology in such a situation could play a vital role when it comes to establishing communication. Dr. Giuliani could have connected that central government via satellite internet  could have shown the systematic happenings and radan emissions. This could have helped the government understand the intensity of the situation (Tremors, 2009).

IGNV could have used censors  different monitoring technologies to identify signals of the predicted earthquake. One should note that in this highly advanced era, using such censors could not have been a problem for the research centers.

The government official could use the Long Range Acoustic Devise (LRAD) systems to communicate with earthquake survivors, so that the respective aid rescue are provided to them. These systems are placed on helicopters defining the affected areas  informs about the gathered people, searching waiting for rescue (Tremors, 2009).

The local citizens could have been informed before hand through radio  other social media. Use of censor locaters could help the rescue teams to identify those under the debris.

Natural Disasters are naturally occurring catastrophes. Damage may be huge or small but the occurrence of such events is unpredictable. Hence it is essential for every individual as a citizen as well as part of the Government to take precautionary measures in order to combat any such happenings.

Individuals should once go and visit the websites of the Research centers of their respective countries to see what is going around, inside the mountains, and deep down inside the earths surface. Secondly it is the responsibility of every government to give due importance to any such warning indication. Only then can we save our homelands from maximum damage  huge death tolls (Tremors, 2009).

Both U.S Patriot Act and UKs Counter-terrorism Act 2008 are laws that are meant to provide framework for fighting crimes. They contain important legislation pertaining to gathering of information regarding terrorist and how suspects should be arrested and interrogated. The two pieces of legislations gives the enforcement agencies more power to seek information and apprehension of suspected terrorist.

The counter terrorism Act 2008 was enacted in January 2008 and received a royal assent in November 2008. It builds on the earlier counter-terrorism act 2000 and comes with more provision for enforcement agencies to collect vital information. Unlike the preceding act, this act gives the police force more power in counter terrorism effect, which is one of the main advantages of this act. In particular, this legislation provides for removes prohibition of post charge questioning, stricter and loner terrorism sentences, register and monitoring of individuals who have been conflicted of terrorism, power to seize assets of convicted terrorist, police power of over document, use of DNA samples and finger prints (OPSI, 2010). This means that this act gave police the power to question suspected after they have been charged in a bid to extract more information. In particular, this act has given the police power to detain suspects for 42 days without being produced in court. In addition it provides for private questioning of suspected terrorist by the coroners inquest secretary from the internet of the jury for the purpose of national internet. However, this act has a disadvantage in the sense that it gives the police more powers to arrest journalist who are seen taking pictures of the police or who attempts to elicit information about the police. This means it is likely to gag photo journalism since they are likely to be very selective and may refrain from taking pictures in the presence of the police.

US patriot Act has been widely criticized for infringing with individual freedom of information. It has provisions that allow the police force to obtain document, tap telephone conversations, e-mail communication, search medical and financial records, in an effort to solicit any information pertaining to terrorism. It also gives the Treasury power to regulate financial transactions especially those which involve foreign individual and entities. It also broadens the discretion power of the law enforcement and immigration authorities to detain immigrations who are reported of engaging in terrorism activities.

There are many advantages of the U.S patriot act. It empowers and streamlines communication between various governments agencies involved in the fight against terrorism.  It provides a platform for them to work together in investigating terrorist activities (Wong, 2007). The act also provides for easier ways to investigate and continue surveillance on suspected individuals.  This act also provides for increase funding victims of terrorist attack and their families.  However it has disadvantages in that it is too thorough. It gives the government sweeping powers to monitor individual habits especially those who are suspected of being terrorists (Fistcher, 2007). Title II of the act also gives the government power to monitor semi-public records like public records

The two acts shares a lot in common but they are different in other aspects. Both are meant to enforce anti terrorism measures and they recognize the importance of gaining timely information to apprehend suspects. However, the counter terrorism act has more stringent provision including giving police power for post-charge question, seizing of terrorist properties, and longer jail sentences compared to the patriot act. Patriotic act does not prohibit taking of police pictures as provide in counter-terrorism act. The revised Patriot Act should bear some of these provisions to make it more effective.

A glimpse inside
In order to understand the reasons behind sexual violence against women, it is important to conduct research on how and why it happens. Interviews with convicted sexual offenders as well as contrast groups are likely to give the best insight into the minds behind these acts (1). Because of the assumption that masculinity is superior, it has resulted in knowledge basically founded on what is relevant in a male dominated universe therefore much of the knowledge mirrors the views of patriarchal beliefs (2). Feminists need to look at and understand the reality of sexually violent men. Focusing on the victim can lead to blaming them and perceiving rape as womens rather than mens problem. This insight can only be acquired through invasive and decisive study of the social make up of rapists (3, 4).
Obstacles in accurately determining the size and characteristics of rapists are numerous. Studies show that only cases involving overt violence, rape by strangers or cases resembling classic rape cases were likely to be reported. A model research design would require interviews with the large group of undetected rapists. But the dangers and ethical dilemmas involved would be great and would place the researcher as an accomplice by protecting the rapists identity. The only realistic alternative is to study convicted rapists (6, 7).

Prisoners mistrust prison officials as they feel information given in therapy might be used against them in a parole hearing. Information gathered through staff-conducted research is therefore questionable (10-11). Due to traditional masculinity behaviour, there was a reason to predict that men would respond to a female interviewer (12). Although security is an issue to any female conducting prison research on rape, the professional self should be given priority before the personal self in order to get good data (13).

Good working relationship is principal in order to acquire as much data as possible within a short time. Long hours of interview, and the use of non-threatening background information made it possible to tackle the more serious area of rape (15). Rapport-though it required delicacy in handlingis crucial to creating a sense of mutual respect, trust and confidentiality even the hardened felons would talk to an interested non judgmental person even if just to break the monotony of prison life (16, 17).

To gain the insight into the interviewees reality, it is necessary to see things from the rapists perspective (18). Neutrality should not be communicated as approval. Yet, disagreements could result to destruction of rapport and compromise future interviews. Therefore, opinion should be given in a candid but careful manner so the interviewee leaves feeling positive about his or her participation (17).

Subject protection is a done in all research projects that receive federal funding. Prisoners present unique problems in relation to obtaining voluntary informed consent hence no mention of the fact that men were rapists, as it would have caused them embarrassment and shame (19,21). Full explanations on risks and safeguards, and the interviewees rights was made clear and permission to confirm the validity of the interview data obtained (23,25).

Studies have shown that prisoners are prone to lying, fabrication and manipulation. However, this seems to serve their purpose for approval since their chances of parole depend on the assessment of staff researcher. Some admitted to raping but understated their use of force and violence. Others did not think that their actions constituted rape. The rest denied outright any sexual contact with their victims pleading mistaken identity (27, 28).

Cooperation from State Department of Corrections and the prison staff was beyond expectation. However, hitches -riots and lock ups- were inevitable at times. Delays due to scheduling mishaps, inmate transfers and occasional absenteeism, power outages and lack of interview rooms were just some of the obstacles encountered (29). Bad weather and lack of air conditioning at times made the long interviews almost unbearable (30).

Conclusion
Research in prisons involving convicted rapists seem to bear the most insightful information  into the rapists mind and even greater efforts should be directed in facilitating research of this kind in order to effectively understand rapists, how and why they commit these crimes.

The ethical dilemmas of investigation and prosecution
The concept of criminal justice is ingrained with the concern for justice for the victims of crime balanced with the proper treatment of those accused of wrongdoing. During the investigation and prosecution of sexual assault and homicide there are varying ethical dilemmas which come into play at various stages including the investigation, prosecution, plea bargaining, and punishment.
Ethics is the application of morality.  According to Leighton (2000) ethics is the search for principles that justify the moral standards that we seek to apply.

Sexual assaults are morally reprehensible to most people in society. The investigation of an assault follows pretty standard procedures. The police conduct an investigation, gather evidence examining the crime scene and talking to any witnesses.

They may also identify and collect any physical evidence and collect specimens that may be used as evidence if criminal charges are filed.  If they are investigating a rape and they have a suspect but not enough evidence they may be tempted to violate the law or the suspects rights in order to trap someone who may otherwise be set free. However, since police are responsible for the investigation of a crime they must follow the constraints set by their department, city ordinances or state laws.  To reduce this dilemma it is imperative that investigators follow proper procedures, chains of evidence and other procedural policies without inserting their personal beliefs about the victim or the suspect. The ramification of a wrong choice is the guilt or innocence of the suspect being called into question if there are any errors made by police.  Any police misconduct can result in a guilty person being set free or an innocent person being locked up because evidence obtained illegally is not usable.

The ethical dilemmas for prosecutors seem to occur in each staage of their decision-making process starting with whether to prosecute someone or not for a crime of rape..  Two of the major dilemas facing prosecutors in a sexal assault case are often conflicts such as  freedom of press vs. fair trial and truth vs. justice. While they may want press charges on a case they have to balance that with making sure that they do not create a situation which makes a fair trial impossible for the victim or the defendant.. They must also battle the ideas of truth versus justice. If a woman of questionable morality i.e. a prostitute accusses a successful person such as an athele of rape and their is public outcry, prosecutors have to  determine if they can convince a jury that this victim was truly raped and seek seek justice through the courts not the court of public opinion.

A homicide case generally involves collecting evidence, identifying the nature and manner of death, locating witnesses and leads and  obtaining statements.  One immediate dilema is seeing the victim as a victim. In cases where the victim is not innocent i.e. a gangbanger, an investigator may have prior knowledge of the victims wrong doing and be less inclined to investigate as thoroughly as he or she would if it was a college student. Sometimes in the investigation they may lie to the suspect implying they have evidence they do not, or consider planting evidence because they believe a suspect to be guilty. Of course the obvious ramification of making such a choice is that a killer may never be found who then is left to kill again.  This dilema is hard to reduce but one possible technique is consistent sensitivty training and reinformcent of  the purpose of thorough homicide investigations.  Similar to sexual assaults, if  the investigation is not thorough then a suspect who may be guilty is set free because of a technicality or lack of  evidence.  The  ethical dilemas facing the prosecutor in homicide cases can sometimes mirror those of investigators.  As with sexual assualts, some homicide cases prosecutors are faced with the dilema of  truth vs justice. The truth may be that a suspect is guilty but without a plea bargain that person may never be punished.