Criminology

There are three interdependent agencies (law enforcement, courts and corrections) which work at the federal and local levels. The present criminal justice system is based on three theories retributive, rehabilitative and restorative theories. These are basically the steps that an offender must go through in order for the system to succeed. (Thomas 2005)

Probation and parole in correction
The use of parole and probation is governed by two competing philosophies positivism and classicalism. Classicalists posits that offenders choose their behavior and therefore they should be punished to avoid future criminal acts. On the other hand positivists assert that individuals are forced to commit crimes and therefore the conditions that lead to such behaviors must be corrected, ultimately leading to the rehabilitation of the offender. Legal acts and public opinion dictate the application of parole and probation.
 
Probation refers to the withholding of sentence and allowing the offender to serve sanctions imposed by the court while living in the community. This is the most used correctional option that does it work under the probation department. Probationers are required to adhere to condition set by the courts including reporting to the probation officers and maintaining employment (Bureau of Justice Statistics 1988).
   
Probation and parole officers have two main functions in the criminal justice system. First they help in decision making process which involves investigation work to help the courts in making decision to probation in lieu of a prison sentence. For parole the decision would be to release the offender from jail. Secondly the officers provide supervision for those offenders who are judged suitable for release back to the community (Bureau of Justice Statistics 1988).

The origin of probation
Probation can be traced to the use of several judicial practices used in England and American courts. Bail for example allowed defendants who accepted certain conditions for release to go back to the community to wait for trial. After setting the bail conditions the judges failed to do anything later. Thus the defendants were released to the community on conditions just like today. If they did not meet the requirements of the release, the set conditions were revoked (Thomas 2005)
   
Probation is used mainly for convicted offenders although it is used sometimes to supervise those offenders who have not been convicted. It can also be used incarceration in several ways such as split sentences and intermitted sentences .Someone given a split sentence would be incarcerated for a short period (6 months) before beginning probation. Intermittent incarceration requires those on probation to spend right or weekends in jail. (Thomas 2005)
   
The administration of probation is not as clear as that of jails and prison. There are 3 modes probation in the states State - administered, local administered and mixed models.
Parole on the other hand, refers to the releases of a prisoner after seaming some part of sentences on condition. There is a period of supervision following a prison term. This means a parolee is placed on community supervision and must abide by certain conditions, and restriction just as probation. Prisoners who have served their full term are not placed under community supervision.

Origins of parole
Towards the middle of the 19th century most lawbreakers were given flat sentences in prison. The offender received a specified amount of time to stay in prison for a specific crime committed. This resulted in a major problem since prisons became crowded. To address this issue the authorities were forced to give mass pardons or the prison warders released prisoners randomly in order to create room for incoming prisoners (Van 1977).
   
Parole operates just like probation but it is administered at the state level. The main differences is that parolees have served a prison term and most of them have been served a prison term and most have been convicted of felony. It also involves overall conditions just in probation such as fines. Intermediate sanctions such as home confinement are also used for parolees. (Thomas 2005)

Advantages of parole and probation
Cost Probation and parole reduce costs of housing the offender in a detention facility. Corrections cost taxpayers about  70 billion annually. Implementing alternative to incarceration is a good measure of mitigating these costs. Thus the efficient management of probation and parole will greatly minimize costs.
   
Space Another advantage of probation and parole is that they assist in reducing overcrowding in prisons and jail. Offenders who are placed on probation are usually not violent criminals. By using probation and parole, beds are freed up to keep violent criminals, which is a benefit to the society in general.
   
Recidivism If parole and probation are managed well they can reduce recidivism rate by close to 40. Recidivism is where a criminal goes back to crime after being released from jail. Reduction of this rate is very important because it reduces the overall crime rate and increases the safety of the society as a whole (Van 1977).

Disadvantages of parole and probation
Community Stigma  Offenders on probation and parole face harsh reactions from the community as the community may feel that these criminals are able to commit other crimes. This places strain on the life of the offenders as they try to adjust to normal life.
   
Few Job Prospects People on probation or parole must look for jobs to meet their financial obligations. They are required to disclose criminal records and probation or parole status to potential employers. Most employers do not like people with criminal background thus forcing people on probation and parole to seek low paying jobs.
   
Restrictions and Rules People under parole and probation have difficulty adjusting to normal life because of the strict lifestyle that the restrictions demand.
   
Contradiction in Monitoring Probation and parole officers have liberty in determining the rules pertaining to violation of probation or parole. For example missing a session might be a violation to one officer and he may demand that the offender go back to prison, while another officer may just need an explanation (Thomas 2005)

Intermediate Sanctions in correction
Intermediate sanctions are designed primarily for offenders who require a correctional option that is punitive and restrictive than probation but less severe than imprisonment, although they are also used for a variety of offenders like person on probation, person on parole and prison inmates among others. Unlike probation and parole, it is difficult to accurately determine the number of offender involved in intermediate sanctions. This is because it is varied, complex and dynamic (Brown, 1990).
   
There is widespread debate on the effectiveness of most of the community correctional practices. Empirical evidence show that intensive supervision, electronic monitoring shock probation and other control oriented practices do not minimize recidivism although these sanctions can reduce prison crowding  (Brown, 1990).
   
Other practices such as halfway housing and day reporting centers are effective in changing offender behavior.  Studies also indicate that there are reductions in serous offences such as auto theft and burglary in re-offending among cohorts with high proportions of intermediate sanctions (Randolph 2005).

Future of Parole and Probation
Thomas Gale (2005) summarizes the future of parole and probation thus If the future of community corrections is the creation or maintenance of public safety, the prospects for success would surely be increased by some borrowing from the joint efforts that contribute community justice and restorative justice(p.108). This future is most likely. Through aligning their operational capacity to make the communities safe, probation and parole have a chance of creating enough public worth to secure the political and material support they require.

An effective campaign against terrorism should deny undesirable elements access into the country without jeopardizing existing human rights regulations. This calls for collaboration between the various intelligence services and the police to share information about suspected terrorists (E.K.U., 2005). This will ensure that police at border controls prevent the infiltration of terrorists by crosschecking the persons details with a centralized database containing information about terrorist organizations and their members. Such a system should employ the most recent technology involving fingerprint and optical identification which will increase the accuracy in identifying known criminals.

Some border posts are ill equipped to deal with real-time communication of data between inter-agencies (E.K.U., 2005). Their communication links are outdated and incapable of transmitting data at high speeds. Verification of bio-data would take a long time and slow the immigration process which would inconvenience a lot of people. Visa processing in some overseas countries is lax and background checks on visa applicants are not as thorough as it should be. This laxity is responsible for a number of suspected terrorists gaining entry into the USA.

By tightening immigration rules and establishing efficient communication channels for verification of bio data, border posts and overseas missions will respond in real time to red alerts on the status of an immigrants application (Fuller, 2005). This will prevent them from issuing a visa to fly or cross into the country. As a first line measure of attack in the war against terror, this initiative will significantly reduce the entry of undesirables. To succeed, it will require a large investment in IT and an increase in the human resource budget to ensure that all borders posts are fully staffed.

Border control posts should be equipped with the latest machinery to help in identification of persons and baggage inspection. Modern communication systems that can transmit data at high speeds will ensure that an applicants status is confirmed before access is allowed or denied.  Training programs geared towards improving officers skills in identifying people need to be conducted to ensure accurate results (E.K.U., 2005). These programs should include interrogation techniques to get information which would reveal a persons true identity even when they are in disguise. 

Refresher courses should be held at regular intervals to update the officers on new skills and measures. Tips to other countries should be arranged so that officers can witness first hand the way other law enforcement agencies deal with the terrorism threat. Renewal of visas will enable officers to net those already in the country. By reevaluating each renewal application to establish the veracity of the persons identity, immigration officers can arrest those suspected of terrorist activities. Police manning these posts should be well remunerated to discourage them from engaging in corrupt practices. Routine rotation of officers will prevent the establishment of cartels dealing in illegal immigration.

The high cost of implementing such a program will be offset by the enhanced security levels that shall be achieved in the long run. Early detection and arrest or repatriation of undesirables will keep America safe from terrorist activities. 

In conclusion, border control and immigration police should be vigilant in carrying out their duties. By providing them with the latest techniques and equipment for identifying suspected terrorists, the entry into the country of terrorist agents will be severely curtailed. These measures will make the country safer from acts of terrorism.

Cruller v. Florida is a case that arose as a function of the Florida state court system.  The case was presented to the Florida Supreme Court on a certified question to resolve a case law conflict between sister courts of different appellate districts.  The case initially arose from a violation two state criminal statutes, armed robbery and car-jacking.  The defendantappellant appealed his conviction to the Third District Court of appeals in Florida on the basis that a conviction of armed robbery and carjacking under the same factual predicate amounted a violation of the double jeopardy clause of the United States Constitution.

The Cruller appellate court held that the defendants conviction of both offenses did not constitute double jeopardy, a holding that was inapposite to the holding of its sister court in the in the First District. 

While the basis for the appeal in Cruller is a violation of double jeopardy, which is prohibited by the United States Constitution, the individual states have enacted anti-double jeopardy statutes. In the Cruller case, the statute in question is section 775.012 of the Florida Statutes, which represents the Florida codification of the double jeopardy clause.

The original venue for the case was a criminal trial court in the state of Florida, which convicted Cruller.  Cruller then appealed, which transferred jurisdiction and venue to the Third District Court of Appeals in Florida.  Because of the conflicting case law from the First District, the Third District Court of Appeals certified the double jeopardy question to the Supreme Court.  When the Supreme Court accepted certification, it obtained jurisdiction pursuant to the Florida Constitution, Article V,  3(b)(4).

United States v. Lopez-Montanez.
Lopez-Montanez is a case arising under federal jurisdiction.  In this case, the defendant-appellant was convicted by a federal jury in the United States District Court for the Southern District of California, which was also the original venue for the case.  The conviction was based on the violation of a federal immigration statute prohibiting re-entry into the United States after a previous removal, United States Code, Title 8, section 1326. 

The defendant-appellant appealed his sentence to the United States Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit, which maintained jurisdiction until it rendered its decision.  After its opinion and order, the case was remanded back to the federal district court to vacate the initial sentence and to resentence the defendant-appellant.

The appeal in this case was based on the sentencing enhancement that was applied to the defendant-appellants sentence due to a previous violation of a California State Penal Code section (243.4(a)-sexual battery).  The sentencing enhancement is available if the previous crime committed is a categorical crime of violence.  In its opinion, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals held that the government failed to prove that the previous state crime as indeed a categorical crime of violence, overturned the sentence (not the conviction), and remanded to the District Court for resentencing.
State v. Ringquist.

Ringquist arose from a North Dakota state trial court (the District Court of Stark County), which was its original venue.  This case involves a search and seizure issue, which implicates the Fourth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.  In the Ringquist case, however, there is a provision in the North Dakota Constitution which mirrors the Fourth Amendment prohibition against illegal searches and seizures.  This case represents the North Dakota Supreme Courts constitutional question jurisdiction, as it must decide which U.S. Supreme Court decisional framework to apply to its Fourth Amendment jurisprudence.

In the case, the district court granted a motion to suppress evidence because the search in which the evidence was found was unsupported by adequate probable cause.  So, although it is a state case, arising in the state court system, the appellate court looks at both state and federal jurisprudence due to the constitutional implications of a potentially illegal search, but relies primarily on United States Supreme Court opinions regarding suppression and Fourth Amendment issues. 

After analyzing federal jurisprudence, along with decisions interpreting the North Dakota State Constitution, the North Dakota Supreme Court, which acquired jurisdiction on appeal from the district court, adopted the Supreme Courts reasoning in Gates as applicable to probable cause issues arising under the North Dakota Constitution.

People v. Turner.
Turner is an interesting case because it involves an interlocutory appeal, which means an appeal from a non-final order.  In Turner, a pre-trial discovery ruling was made by the Chaffee County trial court, a Colorado state court, which was the original venue for the proceeding.  The ruling was an order to an agency to provide certain documents pursuant to a subpoena duces tecum.

The agency petitioned the Supreme Court for an order to show cause, claiming that the materials requested under the subpoena were privileged.  In normal circumstances, the Supreme Court would have to deny jurisdiction on the basis that no issues were ripe for appeal, because no final orders to the merits have case had been issued.  Here, however, the Colorado Supreme Court exercised its original jurisdiction, as granted under the state constitution to correct trial court abuse of discretion when the rights implicated are important and there is a potential for irreparable harm.  In Turner, the court chose to exercise its original jurisdiction because the outcome has a significant impact on these parties, and because the question of discoverability of victim advocate records is an issue of public importance that this court has not previously addressed.

United States v. Williams.
Williams is a federal case on appeal to the United States Court of Appeals from the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan, which was the original venue of the case.  However, on the basis that venue was improper in Michigan, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals declined to address any substantial matters of law.  Finding that the District Court in Michigan was the improper venue for the trial, the Court of Appeals held it erred when it denied the defendants motion for a change of venue, and therefore lacked jurisdiction over the Defendant. Because the District Court from which the appeal was taken lacked jurisdiction over the case, the Sixth Circuit also lacked jurisdiction over substantial matters of law.  The Sixth Circuit reversed the conviction, vacated the judgment, and transferred venue to federal court in Texas, which was the proper venue.

Trial by jury in the United States is an indispensable part of due process.  David A. Wenner (2007) once said that it is the cornerstone of democracy. In view of its importance in Americas criminal justice system, the American Bar Association estimated that the United States accounts for over 95 of all the jury trials in the world even if England no longer relies on jury trial (Trial by Jury, 2008). Lord Devlin, British law lord, once said that the jury trial is the lamp which shows that freedom continues to live (Jury bears heavy burden as lamp of our freedom, 2007, p.1).  For the advocates and supporters of jury trials, the jury is more than an instrument of justice and more than one wheel of the constitution (Jury bears heavy burden as lamp of our freedom, 2007, p.1).

However, the performance of the duties of the jurors is often placed under scrutiny especially if they render not guilty verdicts despite the evidence presented against the accused.  For instance, in January 2009, the jurors in La Salle County Circuit Court found Loren J. Swift not guilty of the charge of possession of marijuana with intent to deliver.  Several courthouse observers say that the jurors voted not guilty out of sympathy with him even if they believed that Swift was guilty.

The objections against jury nullification spring from the lack of knowledge of the role of the jurors in the criminal justice system.  Jury nullification whether or not on the basis of race is just an exercise of the right of the jury to vote not guilty in a criminal proceeding.  When the jury acquits the defendant it is merely performing its solemn duty under the Sixth Amendment which is to ensure that the rights of the accused are protected against an arbitrary and bias judge and against an abusive legislative measure.  In fact, since time immemorial, jurors have been instrumental in guarding against abuses.  For instance, it was believed that jury nullification was used by jurors whenever individuals were charged under the Fugitive Slave Law, Alien and Sedition Act and alcohol prohibition laws (Radley Balko, 2005).

Until now, the minorities are still being discriminated in the society.  They are the ones who are suspected of being involved in crime, arrested by the police on flimsy grounds, and charged despite the inadequate evidence.  The jurors continue to play the role of the collective conscience of the community.  They have the solemn duty to render not guilty verdict if they find that an injustice was committed against the minorities. It is not actually an issue of race but an issue of nullifying the injustice in the law so as to secure justice for the minorities.  The advantage of the jurors is that their perspective is different form the judges, prosecuting attorneys and the lawmakers.  Thus, John Adams once said that It is not only the jurors right, but his duty...to find the verdict according to his own best understanding, judgment, and conscience, though in direct opposition to the direction of the court (Radley Balko, 2005).

On the other hand, the trend nowadays is to limit the powers of the jurors in view of the modern-day resentment against jury nullification.  In fact, in 1996, a bill which required judges to inform the juries in criminal trials that they have the power to judge the law as well as the evidence, and to vote on the verdict according to conscience was scrapped by the legislators.  One of the reasons is that jurors do not have adequate knowledge of the law to be able to make the proper determination of the guilt or innocence of the defendant. Oftentimes, in their desire to protect the accused against abuse and oppression they issue not guilty verdicts even when there is a clear showing of evidence of guilt and remorseless conduct against the accused.  Moreover, the very concept of jury nullification is an anathema to the function of the Legislative Branch of Government.  When juries issue not guilty verdicts against an accused who is clearly guilty beyond reasonable doubt in view of the evidence against him, the jurors are deemed to be nullifying the law.  It is the same law which was passed by the legislature who are the same individuals voted and chosen by the public to represent them and to pass laws for the common good. 

Conclusion
Jury nullification on the basis of race is an issue that is difficult to prove. It is my argument that it is still in the best interest of the criminal justice system for the jurors to be allowed to perform their function.  It is my opinion that jury nullification in general promotes the best interest of the criminal justice system.  In the first place, there is always the presumption that the individuals chosen as jurors in a criminal proceeding knows enough about the importance of their role in the criminal justice system that they will not take it for granted.  Secondly, it is always better for the jurors to be allowed to perform their solemn function under the constitution rather than to limit them.  Jurors perspective is different from the perspective of the judges, lawyers, prosecuting attorneys.  It is precisely why jurors are needed during criminal trials.  Unlike the prosecuting attorneys they do not have the pressure to win every case they file against the accused.  Unlike judges who in their zeal to obey the wishes of the higher authority may give in to these pressures, jurors are not subject to any pressure from any higher authority.  Unlike the attorneys who have the duty to please their clients, jurors do not have to please anybody.  Jurors can simply decide on the basis of what their conscience tells them. 

Interviewing     interrogation  two  forms  of   probing  are  the  powerful  tools  that  are  used  to  delve  into  matters  of  immense  consideration.  However, there are fine distinctions between viability of the two.

Interrogation  is  an  inquiry or  examination  that  is  meant  to  evoke,  debrief  or   elicit certain  unknown  or  hidden  facts  that  are  meant to  be  brought  to  the  limelight. It  is  said  that  this  technique of  information  gathering  is  usually  used  by  police, military   intelligence agencies. On  the  other  hand  interview  is  a sort  of  research,  a studious  inquiry  aimed  at  a discovery of  something  innate  that  an  interviewer  aspires to obtain  from  the  interviewee  through  a professional  conduct.

Conversely,  it  should  be  noted  that  all  interviews  are  sorts  of interrogations  whereas  all  interrogations  are  not  interviews. Nevertheless,  all  of  us  ranging  from  different  age - groups  undergo  some  sort  of  inquiry in every  aspect  of   our  life  but  not  everyone  goes through  interviews  with  such a  frequency. A teenager  interrogated  by his  parents  on  reaching  home  late  night, he  is  questioned  by  his  subject  teachers  on  not meeting  assignment  deadlines.  Same child  is  inquired  by  friends  on  not  attending  a  birthday  party.  These are all forms of interrogations that the child encountered.  However, If   the  same  guy  receives  a  call  for  a  high school admission  interview  that  is  another  separate  professional    purposeful  entity  than  mere  probing.  Hence we  establish  that  both  forms  of  communication  devices  vary  in  forms    intensity. Now  we  shall  look  at  basic  differences   between  the  two  modes  of  inspection( HYPERLINK httpwww.amazon.comNathan-J.-GordoneB0034P7SVCrefsr_ntt_srch_lnk_1_encodingUTF8qid1274327151sr1-1  Gordon  Fleisher,2006).

Major differences between interview  interrogation
Interviews   are   usually formal    interrogations are both formal  informal.
Interrogations  may  turn  wild  sometimes,  in case  of  torture  the  interrogator  may  use  even  unethical  means  to  generate  results whereas ethical  imperatives    constraints  highly  weigh  in  interviews.

Interviews  are  conducted  in  controlled  cordial  settings  but  investigations  have  no  such  limits  always( HYPERLINK httpwww.amazon.comSteinar-KvaleeB001JSFBEMrefsr_ntt_srch_lnk_4_encodingUTF8qid1274327064sr1-16 Kvale  Brinkmann,2008).

Generally  people  can evade  interrogations  but  interviews  are  set  with  the  consensus  of   the  subjects.

Interrogation  in  the  criminal  context   is  an  art    the  interrogator  must  learn  melodramatic  skills. Here several other factors need to be considered as well.  As  in,  the  investigator  must  learn  to  swap  his roles  cause  his  suspects  may  range  from  different age groups    professions. They may be lawyers, doctors, housewives or juvenile delinquents. Hence,  the  investigator  may  be  able  to  obtain  desired  confessions  from  suspects creating  a comfort  zone    rapport. It is important to perform the task in a small controlled, sound-insulated room void of distractions.  Interrogators  must  avoid  rooms  that have  clocks,  telephones,  intercoms etc, cause  those  can  cause  distractions  to  both  people  involved  in  the  process. To psychologically  trap  such  subjects  using  all  possible techniques  we  must  consider  subjects verbal  non-verbal gestures  as  well.  In  this  case  creating  an  eye- contact  is  also  mandatory.  It  provides  an  insight  if  interrogator  can  read faces    eye  movements( HYPERLINK httpwww.amazon.comSteinar-KvaleeB001JSFBEMrefsr_ntt_srch_lnk_4_encodingUTF8qid1274327064sr1-16 Kvale  Brinkmann,2008).

Besides,  interrogator  must  have  a  documented  form  of  the  case  he  is  investigating,  to  consult  the  papers  for  information  about  the  case as  well as  subjects  background.  He  must  also  jot  down  the  key  facts  or  results  being  obtained  from  the  process. Apart  from  inquiring    probing there  must  be  argumentative  points  on  which  to  counter  question. In  order  to  create  such  argumentative  modes  the  interrogator  should  be  analytical  enough  to  gauge  critical  facts  or  confessions  on  whom  further  line  of reason can  be built.

A  specific  time frame  should  be  allotted   to  the  whole  process  in  order  to make  it  comprehensive    well-built. In  the  end,  the  investigator  must  understand  the  fact  that  even  after  such  prudent    thorough  investigations  some  questions  would  still remain  unanswered,  which  can  be  catered  or  further  worked  upon  as  the  whole  interrogatory  process  is  based  on  trial    error  method.

In  recent  trends  criminal  interrogations  have  become  infamous    have  taken  very  brutally  harsh  forms,  defying  the  true  spirit  of  investigations. Partly,  because  of  the  tactics  adopted  in  the  name  of enhanced  interrogation  techniques  or  alternative  set  of  procedures,   the  phrase  assumed  by   the HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiGeorge_W._Bush_administration o George W. Bush administrationGeorge W. Bush administration in  the  United States to  describe  interrogation   methods  used  by HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiUS_military_intelligence o US military intelligenceUS military  intelligence  and  the  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiCentral_Intelligence_Agency o Central Intelligence AgencyCentral Intelligence Agency (CIA)  to  extract  information  from  individuals  captured  in  the  war  on terror  soon  after  the  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiSeptember_11_attacks o September 11 attacksSeptember  11 attacks  in  2001( HYPERLINK httpwww.amazon.comMatthew-AlexandereB001JRXNU2refsr_ntt_srch_lnk_6_encodingUTF8qid1274327151sr1-7 Alexander  Bruning, 200). 

Stories  continue  to  be  concocted  explaining the  real  face  of  tactics  which  can  be  termed  as  even  torture.  I  feel  skeptic  about  adding  the  mental  tortures  in  the  category  of  any  sort  of  investigations. However,  places  like  Guantanamo  bay  sound  synonymous  to  torture  cells  where  criminals  are  tormented  to  the  utmost  degree  leaving  numerous  innocents  mentally  upset  as  a   result.

To   recapitulate, both tools have  their own  pros   cons with  varying  intensity levels. It   is  up to  the  researcher  or  seeker  of   the  truth  to  deploy  a  method  which  can  bring  forward  the  best  possible  results, for  both  are meant  to  clear  doubts    obtain  apparent repercussions.

1.0 Introduction
The police department uses different strategies in solving various disorders in the community and crimes. Community policing is one such strategy, a philosophy that uses organization strategies that support systematic use of partnerships and the problem solving techniques to proactively address all the conditions that are related to issues of public safety, crime and social order. It gives room for the community and the police department to work together in addressing issues related to crime (Bureau of Justice Assistance, 1994). The partners may include police, media, private businesses, community members and other government agencies. Since much more is associated with the strategy, this research shall explore the issue of community policing extensively.  Specifically, effectiveness of community policing will be highlighted.

2.0 History of Community Policing in United States
Community policing in US is one of the most popular topics as it is in other countries. It is funded by the federal government and established under the Violent Crime Act of the year 1994. Its services are supposed to focus more in the ways of preventing crimes and the same department is trained on how to prevent terrorism in the neighborhood and schools. The department aims at effective use of physical environment in reduction of crime hence Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) (Fleissner,  Heinzelmann1996).

Policing in US had gone through various reforms due to several changes that have been taking place in the society. There are three stages that are identified in the 19th and in the 20th century namely the political era, professional era and the community policing era. In the political era that is even before 1900, police were controlled by the politicians. They were quite aware of their neighborhoods and used to keep law and order in those neighborhoods. However, the period was still characterized by corruption and the abuse of the immigrants rights (Wadman, 2009).

After the political era, the profession era followed closely, between the years 1900-1970. The police were relying heavily on the technology such as automobile patrols, 911 emergency calls and radios. The police focused more on crimes and did not heed to other problems in the community. However, in the year 1970 the police department started addressing other problems in the society especially those that had developed during the professional era, marking the beginning of community policing era. The reactive methods that were being used initially began to lose meaning as they never allowed enough investigations to be conducted.  Towards the end of 1970, some researchers saw the need of using a problem solving approach and from then onwards, more researchers continued to contribute to the same (Fleissner,  Heinzelmann1996).

2.1 Components of Community Policing
The increasing recognition by the police and members of the community that the initial crime fighting techniques cannot effectively control crimes while used without back up has given rise to the community policing. As highlighted in the introduction, the key components of the strategy are problem solving and partnership building. The first concept that will be discussed is the partnership building which is supposed to be built between the police and the community.  In this concept, one of the goals is establishing and maintaining mutual trust between the community and the police. Since building of trust may take some time, the police are supposed to come up with activities that the community can participate in.  Building of trust may take a different duration of time depending on the type of  community since studies of Bureau of Justice Assistance (1994), illustrate that building trust with a poorer community is difficult than with a more affluent community. It is only trust that can help the police access valuable information from the members of the area.

In community policing, the society is viewed by the police as an equal partner in the process of controlling crime since members of the community investigate on the matters concerning crime and disorder.   To identify crime, the police officers and the community partnership make relevant consultations with both the business people and other residents.  They may go to an extent of visiting people in their homes to offer security advice or even help them to organize watch groups.  To maintain the partnership, the chief security officer maintains healthy communication between the police and the community as well as making the effort of explaining every tactic and effort that is being used by the police in the management of crimes.

The process of problem solving involves engaging in proactive and systematic examination of the already identified problems by the community to develop and study the most effective responses. The first step is identifying and prioritizing the problem which is usually done by the community. Then, extensive research is conducted concerning the problem including the causes of the same problem. After this, solutions are developed which can help reduce or even eliminate the problems. Finally assessment is done which involves the evaluation the success rate of the responses used in solving the problem (Bureau of Justice Assistance, 1994).

2.3 Effectiveness of Community Policing
Community policing like any other strategy, has had some positive impacts more so in America. A lot of studies have been conducted to investigate on the effectiveness of the same in the areas where the strategy is in use.  It is therefore important to incorporate the research findings of these studies while discussing the effectiveness of the community policing. In addition, the nature and the processes involved in the strategy still add up to the effectiveness of the strategy.

Community involvement in policing strategies contributes a lot to the effectiveness of the strategy.  Since the police works with the community at all levels, community input is highly regarded and contributes greatly to the effectiveness of the same.  Members of the society are used to identify the crimes that need to be addressed. They are also given an opportunity to come up with the best response to address a specific crime. Since they are actively involved in the whole process, they develop trust which in turn makes the work of the police easier.

According to the studies of McDonald (2002), a sharp decline of violent and dangerous crimes has been recorded in the major cities in America.  Although the same study indicates that community policing had little effect on the level of crime reduction, this decline can still be attributed to different approaches used in community policing since the changes were noted only after the police department shifted from the traditional mode of reactive policing to a community policing approach. The reduction of crimes is just but one sign to illustrate that community policing is effective and has been, particularly in the United States.

Since community policing engages the local communities, it can be very effective since people are always ready to take part in strategies that involve their safety.  In a research that was conducted in the city of Detroit investigating the willingness of the community to take part in community policing, about seventy eight percent of the total population agreed that they were ready to work with the police (Tillman, 2000). Having people who are ready to work with the police is the first step that can illustrate the effectiveness of the strategy since the tactic cannot be effective without the input of the community.

In the city of Chicago, a research was still conducted to investigate the issue of community policing. The research indicated that since the strategy was established in the year 1993, major improvements concerning security have been noted (Tillman, 2000).  The same studies record that the community was quite aware of the strategy and about 28  had attended at least one meeting a year prior to the research. A training program was established in the community and it was anticipated that the same group that attended the training would also take part in problem solving activities. Since the program used computerized crime mapping, it was possible for the police to access information concerning crimes which was important in developing crime patterns and matching the crime with various events and conditions as well as come up with appropriate prevention strategies eventually (Tillman, 2000). In the city of Chicago, the community policing strategy proved to be effective. The members of the community were very much committed to the program and the police department as well. Despite the fact that there were problems relating to the same, more strategies were being developed with the help of the community as a means of improving the program.

In the City of New York, community policing was found to be very effective since it led to the reduction of crimes.  More specifically, the aim of the strategy in the area was to prevent crime by arresting all those people who committed the petty crimes. In a certain occasion, a major frisking operation was conducted which was aimed at arresting those who were in possession of guns and other weapons illegally. As a result, the chief security officers reported that the rates of crimes related to murder dropped significantly. This illustrates that the effectiveness of the strategy results from the fact that it addresses all the conditions that can result to crime or criminal activities. For instance, in a housing estate, the strategy may focus on discouraging teenagers who gather idly. Consequently, the same may lead to a reduction of crimes like robberies and drug dealing especially by teenagers.

Despite the fact that the efforts of the police and those of the public are always geared towards one aim of crime reduction, there are specific activities that the police can carry out and those that the members of the public can accomplish. According to the studies of Fleissner  Heinzelmann (1996), police can conduct security surveys and enhance security by providing adequate lighting and the locks. They can also inform the residents on the high risk areas as well as work with other agencies like the building of planers to enhance the security of residents. Likewise, the community can join an already organized watch program, carry out their own patrols to identify problems then take part in programs that improve safety appearance and use of public places. Such a collaborative effort is usually very effective since a lot is usually achieved through the same. 

Community policing is far much better compared to the traditional poling due to the drawbacks of the latter. For instance, traditional policing is reactive such that the work of the officers is actually to handle crimes when they have already been committed other than crime prevention and it is incident driven since the police only work with limited information.  Barely do the traditional policing use other means of solving the problem, other than invoking the criminal justice process. All these drawbacks in traditional policing strategy are solved in community policing strategy as it was developed mainly with an aim of solving the shortcomings.

2.4 Challenges of Community Policing
Though a better policing strategy is required by all the communities, several obstacles have faced the implementation of the same. According to the studies of Chiou, (n.d), the biggest problem has been changing the already present culture in the police department.  Before the implementation of the strategy, the police chief has to make the officers believe that the strategy is more effective than the traditional policing strategy.  Most scholars believe a lot of officers tend to be resistant to the strategy due to the fact that it is not a unitary concept.  Different people have different perspectives of the strategy and there is lack of enough empirical evidence to support the assumptions that people do posses. In addition, the strategy requires the officers to assume some tasks which are quite challenging since they are required to fight crime and at the same time help citizens. This also increases the duties of a police officer and it sometimes becomes pretty hard for one officer to handle all the responsibilities.  Critics of community policing argue that it sometimes interferes with the constitutional rights of the citizens especially where they are required to act as vigilantes.

The most important aspect in community policing is community support, without which the strategy cannot be carried out. Obtaining the support is quite challenging since the same community may have conflicting interests. For instance the youth and the older generation may have different views on the same problem. People who criticize the strategy argue that there is no empirical evidence to support that the neighborhood groups organized by the police help in crime reduction. Since other government agencies are also important in implementing the strategy, it still becomes a challenge to solicit support from them all. Finally, evaluating the performance becomes a major challenge due to the fact the concept has not been adequately defined, and it lacks external validity.

3.0 Conclusion and Recommendations
If community policing can be carried out efficiently, it can be very successful and effective. Various studies that were conducted in New York City, Detroit and Chicago illustrate that its implementation in such places led to reduction of crimes. Moreover, the same study indicate that a large proportion of the population were ready for the strategy for they had embraced it. Some used to attend the community meetings addressing the same issue and were satisfied with the contribution of the same. Where technology was used like in Chicago, a lot was derived from the same. The use computer technology in crime mapping increased the efficiency since the police could obtain the information about crimes more easily.  Since the strategy addresses the major drawbacks of traditional policing, it ends up becoming more effective. However, the implementation of an effective community policing strategy depends with how developed the police organization is.

The studies of Chiou (n.d) suggest that for the strategy to be more effective, it is important for some changes to be made in the police department. The police satisfaction should be enhanced before public satisfaction. The police officers require skills that can help them identify and solve the community problems since all that is entailed in community policing demands a lot of skills. With the relevant skills and passion, the police officer can easily perform his duties. In addition, the police need to change their mode of operation in order to obtain public acceptance and trust. It is also important to understand that communities are different and therefore studying them before implementation of the strategy can guarantee success. Bent on the fact that the strategy in question may be new in some communities, it bears noting that, there are some measures that can be taken to improve on the efficiency of its implementation. Since a lot of the critics argue that there is lack of enough empirical evidence, more research needs to be done with regard to community policing.

Sociological researcher, Steven Taylor, in his articles discusses the moral and ethical issues researchers must grapple with when they are carrying out studies of abusive behavior in institutions that have weak and disadvantaged people in our society. He cites his own 1 year work experience in a state institution for the mentally retarded to highlight his concerns.
           
He describes it as being in deplorable physical condition and grossly understaffed. The attendants had little training and there were no therapy programs. They controlled the inmates through verbal and physical abuse directly to them and forcing them to clean up their own mess, including feces and urine. They also pitted some inmates against others, such as giving and withholding favors of coffee, food and drugs. Further they forced them to perform humiliating acts such as swallowing lit cigarettes and performing fellatio on each other.
         
Mr. Taylor felt that in order to gain the trust of the attendants and thereby get more valid observations, he had to develop a rapport with them. He did so by drinking beer with them and socializing  in other ways. He also played the nave student role and refrained from being critical about their methods. Nevertheless, he was troubled by the abusive behavior he witnessed, but in a quandary as to what to do about it. The attendants, for their part, rationalized their behavior by saying the inmates dont hurt like we do and treating their actions as entertainment. Personally, I suspect they really didnt know how to properly treat the inmates and were desperate to try anything that seemed to control them at least in the short run.
             
The author then posed the question as to what the researcher should do in the face of this ethical dilemma during his study. He considered 4 alternatives
1)intervene., for example to as attendant to stop or threaten to inform his supervisor. The problem with this approach is that it would spell an end to rapport with the attendants and thereby hinder the researchers ability to collect data on daily activities.
               
2) leave field. But research is needed to learn why people abuse.
               
3) blow the whistle. This would obviously shatter rapport and violate the confidentiality provisions of the ASA Code of Ethics.
                 
4 continue study- which is what Mr. Taylor did. Obviously he felt that although this might not appear to be a good option it was the least bad to him.
                 
The author then suggests 4 ways to deal with immoral acts

1 participation in abuses. He contends this is never justified, and that research goals can be accomplished without making human subjects suffer. Furthermore it is I clear violation of the ASA Code of Ethics.
                 
2 )observation of abuse. This may be the price to pay for conducting field research in immoral situations, but a person can never sit idly by in extreme cases like murder and rape.
                   
3 inadvertently contribute to abuse because of reactive effects . It is clear that often this cant be controlled by the researcher and therefore cant be resolved by a professional code of ethics. However the researcher can refrain from encouraging it, for example pretending not to hear an invitation to join in such behavior.
                     
4) doing something about abuse after study, that is, by publishing it and trying to get political action especially through mass media such as TV and newspapers.
                   
Finally Taylor concludes the researcher should

1) debate moral and ethical issues before embarking on a particular study and
         
2) make his own assessment about how to resolve professional ethics and personal morality.