Criminology

Police agencies should help in developing stronger and self-sufficient communities. These are communities in which social disorder and crime will not thrive. Community policing when effective is democracy in real action. It needs active participation of civic, local government and other business leaders, private and public agencies, churches, schools, residents and hospitals. The paper answers the question of when, how, and why Community Policing would benefit a given organization.

Community policing is fundamentally a group effort between the community and the police that identify and solve community related problems. In this scenario the police are not the only guardian of law and order, members of the community assumes active roles in the effort to promote quality and safety of neighborhoods. It has far-reaching and significant implications. The expanded view on various crime prevention and control, the new prominence on ensuring that community members actively participate in the protocol of solving problems, and the pivotal role of patrol officers in the community policing requires drastic change and initiative within any police organization. In the set up, the patrol officers, with the back up of the police organization, assists community members in mobilizing support and resources required for problem solving and improve their quality of life. The members of the community voice their grievances, give advice, and take due action in addressing these grievances.

Developing a meaningful partnership will need energy, understanding, creativity and patience of all those involved. Reinvigorating the communities is important if we need to prevent crime and develop more crucial neighborhoods (More and Miller, 2007). In most communities, it may take time to wear out barriers of mistrust and apathy so that mutual partnerships can be reached. Trust is the virtue that links and underlies the components of community problem solving and partnerships. A firm foundation of good faith and trust allows the police to forge close relations with the community hence, producing solid achievements. In the absence of trust between citizens and police, effective and efficient policing is hard to come. (Ward, 1992). Generally all police organizations are just like any other organization and community oriented policing (COP) and problem oriented policing (POP) works pretty much the same in all communities.

Why community policing
There are gripping reasons why leaders in law enforcement believe the time has already come to change the practices and policies of their organizations and corporations. These reasons are founded in the tradition of police research and policing during the final quarter of last century, in the changing nature of communities, and in the shifting characteristics of crime and violence that affect these communities. Policing strategies that worked in the past are not always effective today. The expected goal of an enhanced way of security, safety and well-being is not yet achieved. Professionals concur that there is a compelling need for invention to curb the problems in the community. Both the nature and level of crime in the society and the unstable character of various communities are some of the reasons that push police to find more efficient methods. Community policing is one of the new inventions.

Just to name but a few, communities in urban areas are suffocating with serious problems ranging from illegal drugs, murders, gang violence, burglaries and muggings. Suburban and also rural communities have not escaped unscathed. They are in the meantime noting increasing trend in crime and other community disorder. On the other hand, the social fabric of our community has changed superficially. The family which is the basic unit of the society is not as stable as it used to be. Single and working parents find it tremendously difficult to have enough time with their children. At the same time schools and churches have not been able to fill this social gap. Ethnic groups, immigrants and minorities, add to the variant nature of our communities. These groups in most cases have various interests and do pursue disparate objectives.

Benefits of community policing
The process of community policing will only benefit the community when the police operate efficiently by devoting attention and time to and admit the importance of community grievances. Groups in the neighborhood and the police in patrol need to agree on which particular problems need to be given priority. For example, police may consider robberies as the greatest problem in a specific community or area, while citizens may point derelicts that spent their night in doorways, break glasses on sidewalks, and pouch through the litter cans to be the big problem. Through community based policing, the issue with derelicts must also get early priority from the patrol police with the help of community members and government agencies (More and Miller, 2007).

Operation procedure
There is an increased difficulty in the governments in balancing budgets, which frequently pushes police departments to secure dwindling resources to curb growing problems. In this swiftly changing community, where police have to endure upcoming drug problems, increased violence and gang activities, the idea of community policing is taking root. Police officers using this approach to solve the problems of social disorder and crime, an approach that may vividly promote and maximize resources and performance, have struck a receptive chord in both local and national governments and in communities across the world. Community leaders and government are starting to recognize that they also should accept the responsibility of keeping their neighborhoods secure. (Wadman and Robert, 1990).  Communities are supposed to take a united stand against violence, crime without regarding the law, and should make a lasting commitment to increasing intervention activities and crime-prevention.

Police agencies should help develop stronger, self-sufficient communities. This implies communities in which social disorder and crime will not thrive. Community policing is a democracy in real action. (Wycoff and Wesley, 1985). It needs the active participating of civic, local government and other business leaders, private and public agencies, churches, schools, residents and hospitals. All who have a concern for the actual welfare of the neighborhood must bear responsibility for safeguarding the society. Community policing is being advocated by authorities at the higher levels of government-beginning with President and Attorney General, who usually describes it as the power sharing in policing (More and Miller, 2007). In addition, it has been the view of many that community policing may play a major role in altering the way the government services are delivered at the community level.

Conclusion
The implementation part of community policing calls for basic changes in the management and structure of police organizations. Community policing is different from traditional policing in the way community is viewed and in its expanded policing objective. While crime prevention and control remain focal priorities, community policing strategic plan use a broad variety of methods in addressing these targets. The community and the police become partners in addressing issues of neglect and disorder like gang, abandoned cars, and broken bottles that, perhaps not criminal, may eventually result to serious crime. Also the links between the community and police are strengthened over time. This ensures partnership will be able to analyze and mitigate the causes of crime.

In order to understand the correlation between mental illness and crime, one must first carefully examine mental illness and the subject matter contained therein.  Psychologists and psychiatrists have debated over a clear and concise definition for mental illness.  Another widely used term is mental disorder, but assuredly, the two are not the same (Mercado, Jay,  Bornstein, 2006).  Mental illness is a legalized term that expresses the absence of ones sanity, but it does not denote a medical reason.  Mental illness has taken on the role of a social concept by which some believe is the cause for social deviance.  The realm of mental function is distinctly incapacitated through mental illness. The term mental disorder is a psychological term used frequently to reference topics of neurotic behavior, psychopaths, emotional disorders of the mind, and psychosis (Bolton, 2008).  Mental disorders are scaled as a social value with verifiable medical fact proportionate to the problem.
   
The psychological community relies on a publication called the Diagnostic and Statistics Manual for diagnosing and treating patients with mental disorders.  This publication is revised periodically, but is the standard form for clinical diagnostics (France  Kramer, 2001).  Patients generally meet with an attending psychiatrist for a psychological assessment to determine if a disorder is present.  Upon gathering all the information necessary to make an informed diagnosis, the clinician assesses each tests results to incorporate into the Axis of Diagnosis.  The Axis of diagnosis is a five point scale used to explain the mental issues included within an individuals psychological profile
   
The fact that a mentally ill person committed a crime should not be a main focal point, but the real concern should be that a mental disorder caused an individual to commit a crime.  The United States Department of Justice (USDJ) reported in June 2007 there being 1,518,559 individuals incarcerated in prison and 785,556 inmates in state facilities (Sabol, 2008).  Of these incarcerated persons, it is estimated that 44.3 were mentally ill males, 44 mentally ill females, and 27 mentally ill juveniles under the age of eighteen (Ditton, 1999).  Mentally ill patrons are 53 more likely to be sentenced to prison or jail than a non-mentally ill individual (Ditton, 1999).  The USDJ has termed the phrase mentally ill to include the clinical diagnoses of bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, and schizophrenia.  Although not cited by the USDJ, there are several other mental disorders that are directly connected with crime and the committal thereof.  Borderline personality disorder, post-partum psychosis, paranoid personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).  Each of these conditions has symptoms and key features that incite the criminal misconduct of those on whom it inflicts.
   
Post partum psychosis has been known to cause mothers to murder their own children.  It requires immediate hospitalization for stabilization, medications, and therapy.  Paranoid personality disorder is noted to include feelings of paranoia and jealousy.  Antisocial personality disorder comes with a vast list of issues including disregard for any rule of social behavior, impulsivity, irresponsibility, legal issues, aggressiveness, violence, and no remorse for any action inflicted onto another (Baker, Bezdjian,  Raine, 2006).  Borderline personality disorder is a step above the antisocial personality disorder.  It is distinguished by unreasonable demands, no remorse, attention seeking, provocative behavior, self-mutilation, mood swings, delusions, reckless criminal behavior, and psychosis. Since the disastrous events of 911, there has been more publicity given to a mental disorder known as post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).  Over eight million American adults suffer from PTSD (MHA, 2010).  It is not of a genetic or biological origin, but rather it is established through life threatening situational experiences.  Soldiers returning from combat, rape survivors, adults who were victims of child abuse and neglect, and victims of terrorist attacks are all finding problems with PTSD.
   
The number of crimes being committed by those determined to be mentally ill vary in severity and nature.  Violent offenses, property crimes, public order offenses, and weapons charges make up the variant.  Violent offenses were committed in 2007 by mentally ill individuals 31 of the time, while non-mentally ill offenders were noted to be at 13.3 (Ditton, 2007).  Of the violent offenses which include murder, sexual assault, robbery, and assault, the crime of robbery was committed by mentally ill individuals in 20 of the cases, while non-mentally ill individuals were responsible for 10 of the offenses (Sabol, 2008).  Property crimes of burglary, larceny, and fraud were committed in 9 of the cases by mentally ill persons and 6.7 were committed by non-mentally ill individuals.  Public order offenses were committed by mentally ill individuals in 17 of the cases and 14.6 of the cases were at the hands of non-mentally ill persons (Sabol, 2008).  The legal ramifications put forth for criminal offenders have only recently been curtailed to include specifications relevant to the mentally ill individual.
   
The courts use remedial provisions to evaluate an offender for trial.  The United States Supreme Court ruled that the lower courts were bound to take a full psychological assessment of offenders in order to determine their ability to stand trial. In 2002, the case of Atkins vs. Virginia set a precedent concerning the legal execution of people diagnosed with mental illness or mental retardation.  It has been established that 32 of all inmates on death row have a mental disorder or mental retardation (Perlin  McClatin, 2009).  In order to go forward with trying an individual suspected of any mental defect, the court must perform a psychological assessment, take a mental health history, and investigate for neurological impairments.  Predisposing reasons are also included with regard to IQ, learning disabilities, ADHD, criminal modeling from childhood, familial history of mental illness, and possible abuse and neglect (Perlin  McClain, 2009).  The courts have approved four tests for evaluation of an individual for psychological findings.  These tests are the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-MMPI-2, the MacArthur Competency Assessment Tool for criminal adjudication-MacCAT-CA, the Halsted Reitan Neuropsychological Battery, and the Test of Verbal Conceptualization and Fluency-IVCF (Perlin  McClain, 2009).  Through the incorporation of these testing procedures, a mentally ill individual is guaranteed a competent forensic evaluation, the right to a fair trial, and if determined, a fair penalty phase.
   
The legal community and the mental health sector have conjoined together in a conscious effort to combat the rising number of mentally ill offenders in local jails, state prisons, and federal institutions.  Mental illness and criminal behavior give birth to felonies and misdemeanors through impulsivity (Palermo, Gumz,  Liska, 1992).  State legislatures from some localities have undertaken the project of working with area mental health workers in order to construct an autonomous mental health court system.  The new court would focus on responding to the needs of mentally ill individuals who have fallen into the legal system by way of their illness. Admission into the court system would be limited as so adequate supervision and monitoring could be ensured for the offenders safety and that of the community (United States Department of Justice, 2010).  The mental state of individuals has admittedly misled some jurors by their own admissions (Mercado, Jay,  Bornstein, 2006).  It is also a viable option for reducing the recidivism rates of mentally ill offenders who ironically are responsible for 53 of recidivism (Ditton, 1999).  The mental health court would give hope to the mentally ill by offering an alternative.  The prognosis for mentally ill offenders would improve as cognitive therapy, psychodynamic psychotherapy, medication regimens, and individual support systems could be more easily applied
   
There has long been a connection between the mentally ill and the committing of crimes.  The two are interwoven and feed off one another.  Mental illness is not brought on by choice.  When an individual suffers from a mental disorder, they often feel victimized by their own brain dysfunction and inability to overcome the problems.  When the same mentally ill individual enters into the legal arena, they are left feeling emotionally violated, exposed, and shameful for whom they are.  The direct connection between crime and mental illness deserves judicial redress.  If ones thinking is not rational, then how can the individual be responsible on a criminal level for an unconscious undertaking of events  The answer is simple.  They cannot be held responsible.  In the age of new understanding, now is the time to thrust forward and insight changes for the betterment of everyone.  .

Economic development and growth in most of the developing countries especially in Africa has been very slow over the past few decades. Several factors have been attributed to this slow economic growth with much weight being placed on poor governance and corruption as a result of lack of independent judicial systems. While most of the economic stagnation in African and other developing countries can be attributed to internal factors, there are also external factors that have led to the aggravation of this situation. Both developing countries and developed countries have a stake at improving the economic condition of developing countries.

Africa is todays the poorest region in the world both in relative and absolute terms. The 21st century has recorded a reduction on growth in most of the countries in Africa and predictions that had been made earlier by the neoclassical theory of growth, asserting that there is a chance of poorer countries such as Africa to catch up with richer countries in terms of per capita income has become an over optimistic view that today seems almost impossible to achieve. Actually, most of the African countries have registered a decline in economic growth compared to the 1980s and 1990s. In the year 1995, most African countries had an average per capita income of less than  1045 (apart from South Africa), articulated in real terms purchasing power (International Monetary Fund, 1995 Spatafora, 2005 World Economic Outlook, 1995). Between the years 1965 and 1990, the real gross domestic product registered very slow growth as compared to the pacific and East Asia. There are several economic issues or factors that have contributed to the slack economic growth in most of the developing countries, most of which are located in the African continent. Among them include poor governance, corruption, and poor infrastructure (Salim, n. d Snider, 1996).

Economic problems facing developing countries
As mentioned above, developing countries have in the last one decade registered a decline or slow economic growth a factor that has continued to widen the gap between the rich or developed countries and the developing countries. Africa is one of the continents that have most of its countries experiencing economic hardships today. There are several factors or challenges that developing countries are facing and that affect their economic growth and development (BBC MMX, n. d VOA, 2003).

Poor governance
Governance of a place dictates the economic policies and practices that are practiced in an area of a country. Governance has a direct impact on the economic development experienced or achieved in an area. Most developing countries are characterized by poor governance characterized by increased corruption. Corruption refers to the abuse or misuse of public power or office with an aim of meeting personal needs. According to the World Banks findings, corruption is the greatest obstacle to effective social and economic development (World Economic Outlook, 1995). Corruption weakens development by interfering or distorting the law thus weakening or destabilizing the institutional foundation upon which economic development is rooted. Most of the major causes of corruption are economic based and thus has a direct impact on economic development in a country (Corrigan, 2009 SAKO, 2006 Kilgour, 2009). Corruption in most developing countries is very rampant and this is an economic challenge to these countries. Economic development can only be achieved where good governance is achieved and corruption rooted out. In most developing countries, governance is based on the desire to fulfill personal desires rather than the achievement of the overall good of the country. This has been a major cause of increasing corruption in developing countries. Businessmen and government officials collude in order to increase their wealth at the expense of the citizens (Baffoe-Bonnie  Khayum, 2003). Most of the economic policies formulated in developing countries are usually self serving and protect only the interests of a few persons. This has resulted to creation of few bourgeoisies on one hand and very poor individuals on the other hand. Most developing countries especially in African are characterized by a wide gap between the poor and the rich. Innovation and creativity among the poor group (which is the largest) is thus discouraged. Corruption as a result of poor governance in developing countries has led to creation of cartels and monopolies thus affecting free and fair competition which is essential for economic development (Dinavo, 1995). The poor end up paying more towards the running of the government while they receive nothing in return for their contribution. Wealth is distributed among the powerful politicians and prominent people in most developing African countries while the qualified, innovative and entrepreneur poor people are discouraged and condemned to poverty (Thirsk, 1997). With rampant corruption in developing countries, it is difficult to achieve economic growth and development. Poor governance is a major economic challenge among the developing countries and a hindrance to economic development (Obasanjo, Orville  Africa Leadership Forum, 1990 Spector, 2005).

Poverty
One of the major economic challenges that the developing countries are faced with is poverty. Africa is one of the poorest continents around the world today. Most developing countries are very poor making it impossible for them to exploit their natural resources that may be essential in bringing about economic development. In the 21st century, the world has recorded an increase in globalization and adoption of technological modes to improve production and trade (Gries  Naud, n. d). Participating in the global markets is an expensive endeavor although very rewarding in the long run. It requires use of modern technology in production to ensure that goods produced meet the many quality standards set by the global market and also to increase the competitive strength of a company or an industry. Developing countries lack financial resources to enable them participate in the global markets hence their dwindling economic conditions. Poverty is a major challenge and contributor to the slow economic growth being registered by most African countries. Poverty or lack of financial resources has also made it difficult for industries in developing countries to adopt the new technological means necessary in improving the production and quality of goods. Goods from developing countries end up lacking the necessary quality to enable them trade successfully in global markets. Poverty is an economic challenge to developing countries that has hindered economic development in these countries (Nnadozie, 2003 Adsn, Graham  Olukoshi, 2006).

Poor infrastructure
One of the major contributors to economic development is infrastructure network within a country. Infrastructures such as roads, airports among ensure that goods are transported to areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration thus enabling trade and bringing about economic development. Good infrastructure also creates avenues for mass production hence international trade. Without good infrastructure, it is impossible to engage in any meaningful trade. Most developing countries especially in Africa are characterized by poor infrastructures that are unable to support national and international trade. These countries have poor road networks, substandard airports and inefficient railway infrastructures. This has made it difficult for the transportation of goods from the areas of production to major national and international destinations (Adhikari, Kirkpatrick  Weiss, 1992). Due to poor infrastructures in developing countries, goods and services tends to be exchanged within a locality or a small area at very low prices since almost all individuals within such an area produce similar goods. This has led to an increase in poverty and lack of development. Trade is a great avenue of achieving economic growth and development but it can only be effective if there are good network of infrastructures. Without infrastructures, it is difficult to achieve national or international trade. Another form of infrastructure that is poorly developed in the developing countries is the communication networks (Frischtak, 1994). Today, in most western and developed countries, face to face communication, telephones linescommunication and letters have ceased to be communication means and have been replaced by online communication enabled by internet services. It is estimated that over 70 of American citizens have full access to internet services at any given time. With increasing use of information technology, it is also possible to purchase goods using the internet thus reducing transaction costs, increasing efficiency and speed of transaction. This has led to a tremendous increase in trade and commerce hence economic development. However, this is not the case with developing countries. Less than 20 of most citizens in Africa have no access to internet and online purchasing is still a new concept being developed today (Kilgour, 2009). Poor communication infrastructure is a major hindrance to economic development in developing countries and a major challenge to the governments in developing countries.

Lack of manpower and high illiteracy level
Most of African developing countries are rich in precious minerals and stones while others have very fertile agricultural lands. Minerals and agricultural products have created avenues for economic development in different already developed countries. However, this is not the case in developing countries. Most developing countries have very low literacy levels with good quality education being accessible only to the rich and influential persons. Low illiteracy levels have made it impossible to have the relevant manpower and experts to aid in extraction of minerals and effective utilization of lands for economic growth (Bloom  Rosovsky, 2003).

Foreign direct investment
An increase in globalization and technological advancement has made it vital for countries to open up their borders to foreign investors with an aim of improving their economic growth and development. Like all other countries, developing countries have in the recent past opened up their national borders and invited foreign investors to their countries to carry out business in the countries. To make foreign investment in developing countries more attractive, governments of these countries have reduced most of the restrictions including environmental rules and regulations. Foreign direct investment is today one of the biggest challenge that developing countries are faced with. Most of the industries in developing countries especially in African are owned by foreign investors. Such companies engage in various business including exploration and extraction of minerals in these countries using many methods that are not environmental friendly. Most of the companies also exploit the workers in developing countries owing to the high level of poverty and unemployment rate. At the end, developing countries and their citizens do not benefit from such direct foreign investments as all finished goods are exported back to the home country of the investors. These investors have also led to the killing of local industries and demoralization of local entrepreneurs (Ekeledo  Bewayo, 2009 Adams  Behrman, 1982). Environmental degradation and depletion of raw materials are some of the effects of foreign direct investment in developing countries. Today, most governments are channeling taxpayers funds to environmental conservation rather than economic development further affecting the economic stand of these countries (Gullberg, n. d Batterbury  Forsyth, 1997).

Loans and debts
Another major hindrance to economic development in African countries can be attributed to repayment of international loans and debts. The international community in the name of helping developing countries gives out loans for construction of infrastructure and social amenities among others. Most of such funding has no revenue return and they carry high interest rates (Sachs  Collins, 1989). Developing countries are today burdened with loans and debts which they are required to service for further loans to be given. As such, a lot of money that should be dedicated to economic development is used to repay loans and depts. Also, the loans come with a lot of restrictions. For example, for a government or a developing country to be granted a loan, it may be required to retrench some of its public workers. This leads to loss of revenue in terms of taxes and an increase in poverty level. Stringent and costly terms of international funding as well as increased burden of loan repayment also forms part of economic challenges being faced by developing countries in their endeavor to improve their economies.

Possible measures to eliminate such setback
Government and judicial restructuring
Most of the above economic challenges are founded or can be attributed to poor governance and ineffective legal avenues or structures in the developing countries. As mentioned above, corruption is one of the killers of economic development in African countries and it needs to be restructured. Currently, most legal systems including the judiciary and the police are not independent thus making it difficult for prosecution or perpetrators of corruption. Outcomes of judicial rulings are highly influenced by government and other influential persons within the developing countries (Cline  Weintraub, 1981 Ross, 1991). For economic progress to be achieved in these countries, legal restructuring is one of the ways to use. The judiciary, the executive and the legislative should become independent. The judiciary in particular should be restructured in such a manner that enables it to fully exercise its mandate without any outside or political influence. This way, cartels, monopolies and wealth accumulation by few persons via illegal can be reduced (Cheema, 2005 Sahn, 1996). Transparency and accountability should be made mandatory for all government and public servants so as to root out corruption. Civic education should also be given to citizens in developing countries (Colman  Nixson, 1986 Demirg-Kunt, 2006). Most of the citizens in developing countries do not know their rights or even government operations and procedures. Elections in democratic countries are largely carried out not on merit but on the power to influence. This needs to change and can only be achieved via rigorous civic education which would in turn ensure good governance is put in place for economic reform to be achieved.

Infrastructure upgrading
Infrastructure is the backbone in which national and international trade is founded. One of the developing countries major setbacks to participation in international markets is lack of good infrastructure networks. To improve economic growth and development in developing countries, it is vital for the governments of these countries to commit a large portion of their budget to upgrading of infrastructures (Sarris, 1987 Isham, Kelly  Ramaswamy, 2002). Developing countries should also seek for donor aid from already developed countries. Instead of taking loans, developing countries should request for grants and donations from developed countries as well as international organizations such as international monetary fund (White  Leavy, 2000 Fanelli  Squire, 2008).

Role of developed countries
Developed countries since they have a stake in economic degradation in Africa and developing countries should also have a stake in helping these countries revive their economy. Debts and loans repayment burdens are some of the economic challenges facing developing countries. Developed countries should consider writing off such long term debts as well as their interests so as to help developing countries concentrate on improving the economy. Any loan granted should also not have terms and conditions that contradict the well being of the developing countries especially in their endeavors to rebuild their economy (Cooper, 1992 Killick et al, 1982). Developing countries should be decisive enough to refuse any grants or loans as well as investment that may hinder economic development and growth.

Conclusion
Developing countries have been struggling with the issue of economic development for a long time. After the 1990s, the economic development gap between developing countries and developed countries widened and this trend has persisted to date. Most of the economic challenges that developing countries face are internal and related to governance and infrastructure. However, there are also some external factors contributing to low economic development in such countries. Developed countries should aid developing countries improve their economies by given them the necessary resource, guidance and advice without interfering in the running of a country or micro-managing the developing countries.

Should children be allowed to sue their parents, say for bad parenting
The family is the basic social unit in any given society. Lately there have been rising cases of children who sue their parents over various issues. In my opinion, I do not find this to be a good way forward as far as safeguarding the family is concerned. Allowing such cases to go on may mean that the institution of family is going to be destroyed and is likely to lose value in future (Schmalleger, F. 25-29). However, children may be allowed to sue their parents in cases of extreme abuse and mistreatment, especially a small child has undergone sever mistreatment in the hands of his or her parents and has not been given essential needs as required at this age specifically. However, it should only be allowed in gross cases on parts of negligence and recklessness. There should be clearly spelt out provisions on circumstances when children can be allowed to sue their parents. Leaving such a law open will see children misuse this law and sue parents over small issues like diet and pocket money. Thus in light of this, I am of the opinion that such a law ought to be scrapped off as it is no good to the society. It serves to split the society rather that promote harmony among people. Many families are likely to be broken if such a law is to be put in place. Incase of bad parenting, the court should look at the facts and find out if the parent was negligent or heshe was overcome by circumstances beyond himher (Schmalleger, F. 42-47).

What age is too young to have sex or get married with an older partner
The age of consent is commonly referred to in the legal field to the age at which a minor can lawfully consent into having sexual intercourse with a partner who is older than them. A minor is said to have consent upon attaining a certain age. This age varies with laws of different countries (Schmalleger, F. 55-57). However, in majority of countries the age of consent is said to be 18 years and above. The reason why many countries have established the age of consent is to prevent minors from being taken advantage of. Having sexual intercourse with a person who has not attained the age of consent amounts to an offence that is punishable by law. In the same manner getting married to a person who has not attained the age of consent is an offence. It is argued that a person who has not attained the age of majority is incapable of making some vital decisions like engaging in sexual intercourse and marriage. It is for this reason that this law must always be observed to prevent cases of abuse among the minors. If a person is found to have married a person below the age of consent then the court assumes that the older partner took advantage of the minor and is thus held guilty. The age of consent thus safeguards minors and young people from sexual exploitation.

Are nave third parties true accomplices to receiving stolen property
Usually the court looks at the circumstances of the case to establish whether the third party had any knowledge whatsoever that the goods were stolen. Section22 of the Theft Act stipulates clearly that the third party must be aware that the goods were stolen for one to be held as an accomplice (Schmalleger, F. 67-71). This means that absence of the knowledge that the goods were stolen relives the third party from liability. In any criminal case there are two key elements that must be present and they are Actus Reus and Mens Rea. Actus Reus is the actual commission of the wrongful act like killing or stealing. Mens Rea on the other hand refers to the state of mind of the person. This means that there must be the proof that the accused person intended to commit the crime in question. Therefore if a third party handles stolen goods without knowledge that they were stolen it means that one lacks the Mens Rea (intention) of committing the crime of handling stolen goods and is therefore exonerated. It is important that there is proof that the accused person did have knowledge or believed that the goods were stolen as at the time of handling them. This was held in the case of R vs. Hall. According to this case, a person is said to have this knowledge if one has actual knowledge that the goods were stolen or is told by a reliable source (the person who stole) that the goods are stolen. Usually the most difficult part in such cases is to prove that the third party actually knew that the goods were stolen. Proof of this knowledge is difficult and it is up to the prosecution to prove to the court beyond reasonable doubt that the accused person knew of the facts (Schmalleger, F. 75-81).

Name an outdated law, and explain why it needs to be discarded.
There are many outdated laws that still exist in books of law and which need to be discarded as they are no longer of any use. A good example is the one according to which it is illegal in New Jersey and Oregon for any driver to pump their own gas. They are required to let a professional do it for them (Schmalleger, F. 125-129). When this law was passed gas pumping was a new phenomenon and thus this law was meant to protect ordinary drivers who were believed not to have sufficient knowledge as to how the gas pump works. However in todays world a boy as young as fourteen years clearly knows how the gas pump works and can go ahead and pump without any assistance. Such a law is no longer of any use and needs to be done away with. In Texas, a law that aims to prevent crime requires that a criminal prior to committing a crime must give a notice which could be written or oral within 24 hours indicating the nature of crime they intend to commit. This is obviously not practical and is virtually impossible to enforce. Yet another law that is perhaps outdated due to its impracticability in implementation is one of the laws in Louisiana (Schmalleger, F. 149-156). This law provides that a person can be jailed for making false promises. An example of this law is in a case of a wedding where one spouse makes a vow and fails to live by the vow. Although all these laws were initially made with the best interests of the society at heart they must be scrapped off the books as they are no good.

What criminal rights should suspected terrorists have
The position of the law is that a person is innocent until proven guilty. This applies to all criminal cases including those of terrorism. This means that a suspect cannot be said to be guilty until investigations are complete and all evidence is seen to point at one (Schmalleger, F. 173-176). However, recently perhaps due to the increase in cases of terrorism rights of suspects have been highly violated. It is wrong to keep a suspect in custody without trial. It is a violation of their constitutional rights as they must be charged and tried within a given period of time. A suspect also has a right to remain silent and police officers cannot at such a time force the accused person to give information some of which might be self incriminating. Many terrorist suspects have been tortured to great lengths in an attempt to force them to give information (Schmalleger, F. 195-200). This also amounts to a violation of their rights as they should not be forced to give information. A suspect in terrorism case is under protection of the Privilege Against Self-Incrimination. This prevents a government of any country from convicting a suspect based on self incriminating information which one was forced to give.

Law enforcement is a collective term for professionals who have devoted their lives to uphold and implement the laws and statutes that are currently in force in a given jurisdiction (Dowler 1). Modern police departments were created out of the desire of the wealthy to restructure society for the purpose of class maintenance and protection of private property. In every society, the police force is divided into various departments with specialized duties. In the United States, in addition to the conventional urban and regional police forces, the federal government has other police forces with specialized jurisdictions and functions. For example, the Park police patrol national parks. In most countries the most significant division in the police force is between the detectives and the preventive uniformed police. Police work nonetheless, includes a multitude of activities in different contexts however, the predominant ones are concerned with the provision of services and preservation of order (Finley 1).

Law enforcement has been marked by various myths which in most cases mar the perception of the society. One of the myths is the crime-fighting image of the police officers. This perception by the society is based on their understanding of mediated policing whereby they always expect something to be happening. This makes the police to attempt to mediate reality themselves. Whenever they go on call, they take into account the expectations of the public. Yet the police are individuals who are empowered to enforce the law, protect property and in evidently ensure public and social order through legitimized use of force. For example, the preventive police, also known as the Uniform Branch, Administrative Police or Patrol, which makes the bulk of the police service personnel is tasked with the duties of responding to emergencies, enforcing criminal law, regulating traffic and protecting life and property (Dowler 1). Although the motto of the police in most countries is protect and serve, their work is mainly to enforce law in general and not necessarily to protect any individual. However, in some jurisdictions, they are entitled to protect private rights. Ordinarily, the police are not expected to do anything other than what is stipulated in the law. Therefore the overrated public expectations as a result of media influence are unrealistic.

Sociologists believe and emphasize that the greatest source of information for the public concerning what it is to be a cop and what cops are like comes from the media through action movies. Police officers also perceive that the publics attitude towards law enforcement and crime in general as directly influenced by mass media. In most instances the images and depictions by the media are grossly distorted and unrealistic. This social force affects not only the perception of the public towards the police but also the police and the manner in which they discharge of their duties (Finley 1). Although police officers avidly try to distance themselves from their erroneous mediated counterparts on the screen, sometimes they use these images as a guide for their own performance and accounts as well as for their own understanding of the publics judgment of their actions. Though the police both denounce and support the stereotypes presented by the media, they still know that they are under constant public scrutiny which expects something to always be happening. Consequently, the media influences the way that they behave and perform on the streets and they are influenced by the unreal and surreal expectation propagated by the television cop shows.  Other than the media, the attitude of the police also influences the perception of the public. The police see themselves as outsider separate from the rest of society because they consider that their work is unique. They believe that when they arrive at a crime scene people will see them as cops but not as human beings (Perlmutter 120). They therefore begin to develop an us versus them mentality which in most cases is reinforced by the symbol of wearing the uniform. The public on the other hand is categorized into a good versus bad dichotomy.

Over time, the influence of the media on both the public and the police creates tension between these two groups. The obvious discordance between the stereotypes and the reality creates some embarrassment for the street cops when perceived by observers. This is especially so when the public try to compare the highly active TV cop who seems to know everyones motives with the ambiguity inherent in real life investigations which are interspersed  with bureaucratic paper work. The media portrays the level of action for mediated police as never a dull moment which raises the publics expectation of the law enforcers (Finley 1). Therefore, the real cops inability to bring criminals to justice on a minute-to-minute basis makes the public feel cheated and they lose trust in the law enforcers. At the same time, the media only portrays clearly defined good and evil characters, yet the streets are characterized by the good, the bad and the gray this leaves everyone in real life convinced that they are the aggrieved victims.

Sociologists have discovered that this cycle of perpetual influence by the media may itself profoundly impact the contemporary criminal justice system in the minds of ordinary people. Therefore the only way to assist law enforcement in the proper engagement of their work is for the public to understand that the actual police work may be way different than their mediated resources give credit for. Effective community policing ought to be put in place if a crime free society is what we all espouse for. In addition, efforts at strengthening community relations may help facilitate positive police interaction and dispel myths associated with police work and activities.

The livelihood and survival of a family now rests atop a foundation of quicksand.  The family structure has succumbed to criticisms from the community and authoritative agencies certified to pass final judgments.  Children are the pawns in these scenarios.  Their futures and well being have been pushed aside while the personal agendas of signifying agencies take precedent.  Amazingly, all of this occurs in the best interest of the child.
       
Some have questioned if the result would have been the same if Annette B. was living in a group home instead of a foster care setting.  Aside from the issues of the matter changing, the outcome would most likely have been the same.  The Division of Children and Family Services (DCFS) would most likely not have pushed for the termination of the paternal rights of the father as avidly as they did.  In the state of New York, there are time constraints for planning once a child is removed from parental custody.  New York stipulates that within sixty days of removing a child from parental custody, they have a twelve month time limit to incorporate a permanency plan for the child (New York, 2010).  This plan provides for counseling of the child and family, foster care, group home living, and psychological services.  It also addresses the issues of either parental reunification for living or adoption planning.  During this planning period, DCFS would have had more than ample opportunity to make the necessary efforts to contact the father of Annette B. in order to assess his intentions concerning his daughter.  Since a group home provides for more long-term living, DCFS would not have felt the time constraint, and if they had most likely would have ignored it.  There are more children available for adoption from a group home setting than from foster care (Bernstein  Bernstein, 2006), but the same procedures for terminating parental rights must be followed.

The legal determination should be questioned insofar as what result would have occurred if the foster parents did not wish to pursue adoption.  Human beings are naturally designed with
feelings therefore it is only natural to assume that both the child, Annette B., and her foster family most likely bonded.  Foster care was designed to replace orphanages in the late 1800s (Reardon  Noblet, 2009).  Foster care provides a parallel familial setting and serves to replace the missing family dynamic.  If the foster parents of Annette B. did not wish to pursue a legal adoption of her, then the outcome of the case would have been the same but the ruling would have been delayed.
   
When the legal standard is clear and convincing evidence of abandonment by the natural parent, should the family court consider the situation of the child  The answer is yes.  The best interest of the child is the only priority and the situation of the child is secondary.  Family courts have the jurisdiction to determine whether or not a child has been abandoned under its codes (West Publishing, 1904).  Abandonment is not just physical desertion and occurs emotionally when the parent no longer emotionally interacts with the child, avoids pre-planned visitations, or fails to provide a child with the essential needs for survival.  Before any adoption can be entertained, the parental rights to the child must either be voluntarily or legally severed (Beauvais-Godwin  Godwin, 2005).  In the case of Annette B., abandonment was determined via the incarceration of the father and his failure to maintain any written or verbal contact with the child.  In the 1982 case of Santosky v. Kramer, the dissenting judge wrote.

Even when blood relationships are strained, parents retain vital interest in preventing irretrievable destruction of their family life if anything, persons faced with forced dissolution of their parental rights have more critical need for procedural protections than do those resisting state intervention into ongoing family affairs., (102S Ct1388 455 US 745, 1982)

Parents sometimes put aside their own personal needs for the best interest of their own children and surrender their parental rights permanently.
   
The issues of parenting and family law create much discord in the family court system.  Social workers are overburdened with heavy caseloads, but the children that are invariably in the system are unaware of any problems.  Clear and convincing evidence of abandonment need be more stringent in the family court.  Penalties should be imposed on caseworkers who fail to comply with provisions already in place to avoid delays and violations of parental rights.

Each state holds specific laws and statutes for certain social issues.  These laws and statutes are compiled and executed based on the rationale or issue at hand combined with the community need for intervention.  The crime of battery is categorized as both a misdemeanor and a felony by the criminal standard.  It is also a civil crime punishable by hefty fines imposed by the civil courts.  In order to understand the law as it relates to an abuser, one must examine every facet of the crime of battery.  Evaluations with regard to the origin of the crime, individuals at risk, psychological and physical assessments of potential abusers, social influence, family dynamics, and criminal backgrounds all attribute to the criminal profile of an abuser or potential abuser.  The law is very precise with how it addresses the social violation surrounding battery.  The long term effects on an abuser carry with it a downside.  Some abusers feel that the law discriminates against a full recovery despite the resources and treatments available.  Those who are guilty of battery in essence become victims of legal battery themselves.
   
Battery is defined as both a criminal and a civil violation of the law.  According to Blacks Law Dictionary, the criminal explanation of battery is the extreme use of force against another (2001).  This form of battery is generalized as a misdemeanor offense.  There exist other forms of battery like aggravated battery, sexual battery, and simple battery.  The crime of aggravated battery is the felony form where the injury to the victim is more serious or may have involved the use of a weapon.  Sexual battery involves forced sexual contact that is very similar to rape.  Given the nature of the offense, this form of battery is classified as a felony by most states.  Simple battery can occur in verbal form or through intimidation where as no actual physical contact takes place.  Simple battery is very common and is labeled a misdemeanor.  In lieu of the civil procedure for battery, the crime itself is determined without criminal justification.  Civil battery is determined that the incident occurred more likely than not.  Damages are sought by the victim of the offense in many cases without a battery conviction from the criminal court.
   
Battery is a form of domestic violence (Shestokas, 2008).  Advocacy groups have concurred on this belief as battery is often at the center of many incidents of domestic violence.  Families, married couples, same-sex couples, and single-parent homes are all subjects of domestic violence.  Abuse can occur without physical altercation.  Verbal and emotional abuses are sometimes more damaging to an individual than a physical act of violence.  Children in abusive situations are most impressionable and usually bear the brunt of all the organized chaos on the home front.  As a result of living in such a tormented environment, these children grow up predisposed to commit the same social acts of violence and abuse against others.  The cause and effect in this scenario are predestined.
   
Criminologists have attempted to pinpoint the origin of abusers, or batterers.  Many theories reference the broad make-up of an abuser, but an actual profile of an abuser is unachievable because each incident is triggered by different elements (Gaines  Miller, 2007).  Abusers are categorized by a very classic set of characteristics that serve as the baseline.  Abusers typically are unemployed or underemployed.  Many have little if any formal education devoid of a high school diploma or general education degree (GED).  Drug and alcohol abuse is commonly found.  In some cases, there are verifiable incidents of mental illness.  Still, some abusers admit to having experienced incidents of domestic violence as children as well (Edwards, 2010).  When delving deeper into the framework of an abuser, social and family dynamics are frequently noted to having played an intricate part in the dysfunction of an abuser.  Some abusers have reported being under a tremendous amount of stress.  While stress is not a valid rationalization for criminal behavior, it does open a door to a better understanding as to why battery occurs.
   
The physical health and structure is of great importance when examining an abuser.  Particular attention should be given to any residual medical conditions past or present.  For instance, certain medications can produce behaviors that under normal conditions would not arise.  Thyroid dysfunction can have a devastating effect on every system within a human body.  The prescribed use of corticosteroids for pulmonary, autoimmune, and neuropathy diseases can suggest psychological malfunctions in an individual.  The field of neuroscience may wish to evaluate the brain function of an abuser to see if there existed an underlying tumor or circulatory problem in the brain that would interfere with otherwise normal brain functions (Samaha, 2006).  Poor diet and malnutrition can also account for violent behaviors.  Sadly, many abusers do not believe that a problem exists on any scale.
   
From a psychological perspective, it is easy to assume that these patterns of behavior have most likely been learned.  Persons growing up in a home where acts of physical violence took place on a daily basis may have no other comparison to what is deemed normal within society.  Adult children of alcoholics and drug addicts encounter issues of problematic normalcy within day to day life as a result of their dysfunctional cognitive upbringing.  Many mentally ill individuals go undiagnosed for years before obtaining the proper diagnosis and treatment.  Incidents involving criminal proceedings can open the door for recovery for some persons, as courts are known for requesting psychological evaluations.  Mood disorders such as bipolar disorder or schizophrenia could be masked or even hidden beneath a substance abuse problem.  Mentally ill people have been known to self-medicate for years without even knowing that a mental illness was present.  Surprisingly, women are more often abusers than their male counterparts.  Psychiatrists have correlated this fact to levels of serotonin produced within the brain (Samaha, 2006).  Men experience fluctuations of serotonin when angered accompanied with higher levels of testosterone being produced.  Women experience hormonal fluctuations daily as levels of estrogen filter ovulation and child rearing.  The levels of serotonin in women create chemical imbalances and promote irrational mood swings.  The Duluth Theory states that women are more often the abusers in an incident of battery than are men (Davis, 2008).  Women have been psychologically diagnosed many times over to be suffering from conditions of Pre Menstrual Syndrome (PMS), Post Partum Depression (PPD), and Post Menstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD).  Some could argue that these conditions are psychological camouflages used to dismiss personal accountability for ones actions of violence.  It is a very well calculated way to ease ones conscious.  In a study conducted to test the validity of the Duluth Theory, it was determined that between 1970-2000, violent crimes saw an increase at the hands of men by 85 and at the hands of women by 260 (Davis, 2008).  Womens Rights and advocacy groups have conveniently failed to report these statistics to the general public.  It would appear that the legal community has fallen victim to believing the bias that men are women-hating Neanderthals (Burton, 2008).
   
The legal and financial obstacles encountered by a convicted abuser are not idealistic.  An abusers initial contact with the legal system begins with a member of law enforcement.  Officers are remarkably trained to handle incidents of battery and domestic violence.  The typical provision involving a domestic battery requires that one person must vacate the premises.  Unfortunately, the male is usually the one arrested.  The alleged batterer is taken to the police station for processing and booking.  Pictures, fingerprints, and a formal statement are collected and placed into a now permanent arrest record.  Restraining orders are contracted while the batterer is still being held as a means to provide protection to the victim (Shestokas, 2008).  If the alleged criminal is devoid of any prior criminal record, bond is usually suggested.  Bond allows the abuser to be released from jail on the contingency that the appearance for court is guaranteed.  During this time, the alleged criminal is prohibited from contacting the victim in any way as the restraining order remains in effect.  Some abusers report being contacted by the victim during this time to apologize.  The victim initiating the contact is a contempt charge in most domestic courts.
   
As the alleged criminal approaches the trial date, there is an opportunity to seek counsel via a court appointed public defender.  Financial restraints make this option more viable to many abusers.  If this is a first offense, the offender is usually fined heavily, ordered to perform community service, put on probation, and mandated to an anger management class.  If the offender has a prior record for violent incidents, then jail time will most likely be inevitable.  A misdemeanor battery charges can mandate jail time be served up to a year, while a felony battery charge can carry a prison term from two to five years (Sniechowski  Sherven, 2007).  A conviction of a domestic violence and battery charge will give the offender a permanent criminal record.  This can make finding gainful employment difficult within some professions.  The fines imposed by the court are set at the discretion of the court.  If an abuser is unemployed, the stress continues to mount.  Courts will sometimes work out a payment plan with a convicted offender, but the terms must be met without hesitation or the offender may lose a driver permit as a condition of the arrangement.  Another interesting tidbit is that the convicted offender, if convicted of an incident of domestic violence battery, may be forced to surrender any guns to local law enforcement.  Gun ownership is prohibited now by persons who have domestic violence on their criminal records.  Another complication encountered by offenders convicted of domestic violence battery surrounds the issue of their children.  If the offender has children with the victim, then visitations may be suspended or delayed until the Division of Children and Family Services performs or implements a visitation protocol (Gaines  Miller, 2007).  This provision in no way effects an obligation to pay child support.  Child support is due regardless of the situation.  Children affected by these visitation irregularities develop attachment disorders and residual feelings of anger against the absent parent.  These factors all coupled together question the fairness of the legal system concerning the abuser.
   
Programs have been employed to help reduce future incidents of domestic battery at the hands of abusers.  Mental Health Community Service Boards have worked conjunctively to incorporate court approved anger management classes for court referred offenders at the state level across the county.  It is believed that if a person has a better understanding of self, then the ability to control malevolent behavior is more probable.  Counseling services on a variety of levels have also been instituted.  Individualized therapy, group therapy, and substance abuse treatment have become the standard for treatment (Shestokas, 2008).  There has been a significant increase in the number of women enrolled in these programs than in the past.  This is due to the number of battery incidents involving women as the abusers.  Women involved in battery incidents were reported in 2007 to have used weapons 82 of the time and to have initiated the incident of violence in 24 of the cases (Sniechowski  Sherven, 2007).  The accepted referral programs allowed by the courts are designed to address issues pertaining to domestic battery from a variety of angles.  These programs address educational drawbacks, communication barriers, mental health concerns, financial burdens, community poverty, lack of transportation, and the overall general well being of the abuser.  Group therapy is a wonderful way for the convicted abuser to re-enter a social setting on a positive plateau.  Group therapy encourages participation in group discussions on various topics involving anger and violence.  It also provides the offender with an opportunity to hear what other abusers have encountered as they come to realize the seriousness of the situation and the detrimental effects it forces upon society.  Abusers may find commonalities with other members of the group and eventually feel comfortable enough to share experiences of their own.  This in turn completes a circle by certifying positive change in the abuser.  When these programs are ignored and not enforced, the likelihood of recidivism is inevitable.  Offenders may only be given one opportunity to succeed within the confines of a specified program.  The program directors are mandated to provide the court with regular progress reports and open-ended status reports on demand (Sniechowski  Sherven, 2007).  Probation officers are often assigned to do spot checks on the regular attendance of the offenders in some referred programs.  The legal system provides that these are safety nets designed to ensure the offenders success, but some offenders take offense to feeling observed under a microscope.  The added stress can have a negative influence on the offenders success.  Unfortunately, the offender is not in any position to argue the legitimacy of the court ordered mandates.  These programs are often used as an alternative to serving time in jail.
   
True understanding into domestic battery requires that one also view the other side of the coin.  The victim of a domestic battery also has rights where the incident is concerned.  The victim is protected throughout the process by restraining orders, law enforcement, medical professionals, and family or friends.  Community resource centers have emergency shelters in place to help the victim get to a safe environment if need be.  Counseling and legal services are offered at no charge to the victim immediately.  There are hotline numbers for victims to call if they need help or just need someone to talk to.  Some localities even provide victims of domestic battery with free cellular phones in order to call for emergency law enforcement in the event that the abuser attempts to harm them again in the future.  These services are also offered at no cost to the victim.  Divisions of Family Services help victims get into private housing, provide state medical cards for the victim and their children involved, food stamps, utility assistance, and employment and educational assistance.  It seems as though the flood gates open to aid the victim of the situation, but the abuser is left to somehow piece their own life back together the best way they can.  Victims are afforded the opportunity to provide an impact statement in court.  These statements have been known to have a lasting effect on the presiding judges over such cases.  Tearful explanations citing personal feelings and fears are always included, but there is never an admission of the victims part in the incident.  The belief that an abuser just flew into a rage and became violent is a myth.  There is always a reaction for an equal and opposite action.  Some victims have opted to participate in the shock therapy program offered to some offenders in prison.  This program brings together face-to-face the victim with the offender.  The offender is given the opportunity to offer an explanation, apology, and answer any questions that the victim may have.  This program permits the offender to come to terms with the exact effect that their actions had on another individual.  It also allows some victims to have closure.
   
The legal system of the United States is in no way perfect.  It is flawed in many areas, but it is functional.  When considering what an alleged batterer must go through, it seems overwhelming and impossible.  The rights of an abuser are minimal at best.  The court system was founded on the belief that a person is innocent until proven guilty, but such is not the case in incidents of domestic violence.  Abusers are often stereotyped as savage beasts that do not possess the ability to control their tempers.  They are often portrayed as deadbeats who do not work, use drugs, and lack the social temperament to be civil within society.  Abusers are human beings with rights.  The financial burdens assumed take away from supporting family and children.  There is an underlying level of discrimination and bias being put forth against abusers and alleged abusers from within the legal system.  Guilt is presumed before being proven.  Issues pertaining to physical, psychological, and legal framework of an individual are being overlooked for the purpose of securing a conviction. The original ideology and scaffold upon which the current domestic violence and battery policies stand, they fail to acknowledge the fundamental rights of the accused.  There are too many cons pertaining to the laws of battery.