Criminology

This paper reflects on punishment in regard to criminal activities in the society. It aims at establishing a more preferable concept of punishment among the rest. These concepts of punishment are as follows retribution concept where the punishment accorded by the wrong-doer is equivalent to the offence committed. It takes the form of an eye for an eye or a tooth for as tooth.  Incapacitation involves rocking up the offender within the walls of prison. This is believed to be the rationale behind imprisonment practices among many states. Rehabilitation concept involves reformation or restoration of character. Deterrent concept upholds that punishment accorded ought to be a lesson for many or potential criminals.

Punishment should not be a recipe for the violation of human dignity but a way to affirm that dignity. This however, must not create a favorable environment for criminals. A state must ensure a criminal-free society. Notably, incapacitation takes a more prominent position but on condition that prisons put in place proper mechanisms in line with the law not only that, mechanisms that endeavor to reform the offenders character and prevent further occurrence of similar crimes in the society.

Introduction
Today, the concept of punishment has been accorded diverse interpretations as far as its objectives are concerned. In line with this, there is contention in regard to the appropriate purposes of corrections and the ways through which those corrections can be achieved. Punishment is intuitively considered to be an intrinsically retributive practice. This study will explore various concepts, for instance, retribution, deterrence, incapacitation, rehabilitation, and vengeance. Various models of implementation such as justice model medical models and custodial models will also be considered. In the long run, a synthesis of all the concepts will be developed so as to establish the more convincing concept among the mentioned ones above.

Punishment Theory
It is the act of punishing where the subject undergoes suffering, pain or loss that serves as retribution. It is a fine against the wrongdoer through judicial procedure. It is a severe, jagged or disastrous treatment (Merriam-Webmaster, 2010). Some pain or penalty in the light of law, imposed on a person as a result of a grave misconduct or for the commission of a criminal act punishable by law (Lectric Law Library, n.d.).

It is important to note that an attempt to define punishment is not invitation to justify it. Again, punishment is administered by institutions who in turn define the ways in which punishment on offenders is to be carried out. In this case therefore, to justify the practice of punishment is not tantamount to justifying the act of carrying out this punishment. Either the practice of punishment or the act of punishment should be in tandem with certain set of guidelines such as prescribed laws, rules, standards, and fundamental moral principles. All these set of guidelines become the frame within which practice of punishment or act of punishment may be implemented or justified.

Punishment can take different modes, for example, it can mean to inflict pain on someone like in the case of corporal punishment in schools or a parent thwarting her children or police flogging a group of demonstrators on illegal mass protests et cetera. It can also mean to deprive of someone certain fundamental needs, for example, food, water, air, or conjugal rights just to mention a few. The punishment widely accepted is the one under law. In fact, punishment today is associated with legality. The judicial system is seen as an institution to punish offenders and further to this as an institution that should state what punishment for what offence is to be undertaken.

Concepts in Punishment
It may be argued and justifiably so, that punishment aims at correcting the wrongdoer and not for other arbitrary reasons. There are certain aspects of punishment that exist de facto and there are those aspects that exist de jure (Fingarette,1978). In the former, it is when it is punctuated as a matter of fact and in the latter, it is when it is punctuated as a matter of law or as a result of the recognition it is accorded under the law. There are two justification models namely deontological justification and consequentialist justification. The agents of punishment have in mind an objective that they intend to achieve. As a result of this, they justify the practice of punishment and the way in which this punishment is carried out by referring to the end-results. This is the position of consequentialists, guided by the famous maxim that the end justifies the means. Punishment as prescribed by law is to prevent further commission of crime in the public domain. The culprits who undergo punishment serve as an example to others and as a result avoid commission of the same offence for fear of similar punishment.

On the other hand, punishment is regarded as a good thing in itself and its justification cannot be attributed to other measures. It is an act in itself by virtue of justice. This latter assertion is a deontological justification as compared to a consequentialist justification. Note that deontological justification is equated to retributive justification. A further notion of retribution extends to retributive justice. Here, it is the widely said expression of an eye for an eye or a tooth for a tooth. This was coined back in the time of a Moses, a law that Christianity interprets ex abundant cautela meaning out of abundant caution (Fingarette,1978). Retributive justice states that punishment, if in proportion, is a morally tolerable response to crime and must be so if it satisfies the aggrieved party. She must feel psychologically and physically compensated together with his or her close allies (Philosophy Dictionary, 2005). In this light, retributive punishment involves punishing to the wrongdoer similarly to the offence committed. For instance, if the culprit cuts a finger of another, then the punishment accorded to him or her must be to cut his finger in return.

As mentioned earlier, punishment ought to prevent other offenders from committing crime. This understanding is equivalent to deterrent philosophy of punishment. Incapacitation is a major way the state through its prisons contribute reduction of crime in the society. By confining an offender in the walls of prison, the chances of himher committing crimes are minimal. It is believed that imprisoned offenders are prevented from additional mischief. Legally, this has proven the best measure to deal with criminals for most states as compared to deterrence and retribution (Jeremy, 1948). Seemingly, since the period of 1970s incapacitation serves as the foundation for imprisonment, especially in the United States (Scholarly Literature, c.2010). Rehabilitation in general sense means to restore or to revive. It is the reconstruction of a characters reputation. It aims at improving a persons character while transforming himher to become productive in the society (Webmaster, 2006).

A synthesis of the concepts in punishment
Looking at the definitions of the punishment concepts above, it can be noted that each understanding has got its strong points and weak points. This makes it hard to prefer one concept and disregard the other. What is important, therefore, is to sieve the strong points in each concept in order to identify a more convincing and yet balanced approach to punishment. There are check and balances in the use of punishment and mainly in fostering a just social system. According to the liberal theory of punishment, punishment should never destroy a persons dignity. It must be grounded on fundamental human principles punishment must never contradict or violate the rights of the offender as humans. Here, the offenders guilt must be established through due process the response to the offence must be commensurate with the offence committed. In this respect, there exists a direct proportionality between the offence and the punishment for the offence (Bedau, 2005).

Arguing from the premises by Bedau, it is true that an act of punishment should foster human dignity at all times. Punishment is to correct a mistake and to reform a character. Punishment should not aim at preventing others from committing crimes as deterrence concept holds but it should prevent the offender form doing the offence again. It is good to seal all possibilities that can render a crime to occur but it makes sense when the prevention mechanisms start from the offender. Inclination to crime is a very wide area in the public domain and preventing its occurrence from one party makes little sense. The state may apprehend one or two or three criminals, say terrorists, but by punishing them through sentencing them to death may not eradicate the occurrence of similar crime. There are people who hardly learn from other people experiences. It is evident that despite the states efforts to apprehend offenders in the society there is still serious proliferation of more similar crimes. This claim weakens the deterrence theory.

Retribution is good to the extent of which it confers pain and equivalent punishment (Jeremy, 1948). Its modalities are rooted in justice hence retributive justice. However, the criminal laws should exercise caution in determining the magnitude of punishment. As noted on incapacitation theory, imprisonment becomes a good way in dealing with criminals. For sure, if somebody cuts another persons finger, there could be other punishment mechanisms that can be adopted through the programs in the prisons. At least, due process of the law should prevail. As expressed in Latin, habeas corpus meaning a person should be brought in court and determine the lawfulness of hisher case. She should get a chance to explain the reasons that led himher to cut the others finger and the circumstances altogether. In this way, the case will establish if the plaintiff was justified or not to carry out such an act. The problem with retributive punishment is that it alludes to a fallacy called selective observation. Here, the conclusions by another party to another party disregard possible rational factors. It is the famous phrase that goes, do not judge a book by its cover. Vengeance and retribution have al most the same implications and hence the same defects.

Putting together the thoughts above on the concepts of punishment, the incapacitation theory is more convincing but on condition that the prisons have a thorough way of dealing with the prisoners (Raymond, 2005). Punishment in prison takes maximum cognizance of the law at all times. Again, necessarily is the appropriate place for wrong-doers. Imagine a case whereby criminals are taken to rehabilitation centers where there are no hardships but easy life and nursing. Everybody might decide to commit crimes so that she can be part of the good life in the rehabilitations centers.  A right thinking citizen will not like to end up in jail for she knows the consequences and the reputation one gets in the social framework.

Conclusion
Although we have argued that criminal punishments must never contradict the principles of morality especially human dignity and hisher entire common good, no society should tolerate criminals. They should be severely punished and by all means prevented from committing further crimes. I admire severe measures taken by the court that inflict ample discipline and penance to the offender. I believe it is such a good thing when criminals reform out of the punishment conferred to them by their authorities.

However, criminals are human beings who both need counseling and should not forget their rights too. A good society is the one that aims at reforming wicked characters this is the best way forward. I want to reiterate that, criminals cannot be tolerated in the society by all means and the government should strengthen its security forces in ensuring that the rate of crime is minimal. Security is a human right and any attempts to infringe it should be dealt with accordingly. As illustrated above every concept has both strong points and weak points so I recommend that a good and more convincing concept on punishment be derived from the strong points on each. However, incapacitation is the best way to go but on condition that prisons strictly adhere to the correct ways to deal with wrong-doers, upholding their dignity and reforming their character.

Abstract
Since the 911 attacks in the United States, the international community has stepped up efforts to combat terrorism. The focus has been on military strikes as evidenced by the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, freezing of financial assets and enactment of laws that deny terrorists access to weapons of mass destruction. Easy transfer of technology, economic interdependence among nations, religious ideals and the vibrant media as a prime source of giving information has given terrorists strategic advantages to further their agenda. The paper will try to analyze the PKK of Turkey which is classified as a terrorist organization and its use of the force multipliers.

In an increasingly global village, interests are getting more individualistic by the day. Numerous groups have sprung up in every part of the world to pursue various political objectives all in the name of liberation of their people. What makes them controversial are the means which they have chosen to achieve their goals. Terrorism has become an important tool for hardline and sometimes ideologically extremist groups to attain their goals. Use of violence is now in line with the operations of different groups who have sought to force institutions like governments to give in to their demands.

Definition
There is no universally accepted definition of terrorism. However different scholars and law enforcement organizations have come up with definitions that have sought to describe the activities surrounding terrorism. A simple definition of terrorism as quoted in White (2009, p, 10) can be the use of force to achieve political objectives by targeting innocent people (Walter Laqueur, 1987, 1999). According to the Federal Bureau of Investigations, as quoted from the Council of Foreign Relations, terrorism is the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives. (28 C.F.R. Section 0.85).  Further, the FBI classifies terrorism as international or domestic depending on the activities, bases of operation and the objectives of the group. Domestic terrorism therefore is defined by the FBI as activities that involve acts which are dangerous to human life and are in violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any state appear to be intended to intimidate or coerce a civilian population to influence the policy of a government by mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping and occur primarily within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States. 18 U.S.C.  2331(5). The reverse applies to international terrorism.

The United States is known for its long history of political violence but only few instances have been characterized as domestic terrorism (White, 2009, p 347). Asia and Eastern Europe have been plagued by situations where home grown terrorist groups operate within their territorial borders unleashing domestic terror on civilian and government targets. Turkey for instance has been battling the problem of terrorism with the PKK for decades.

The Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK)
Though Turkey is currently experiencing waves of religious terrorism, the major terrorism problem for the last three decades has been coming from the Kurds (White, 2009, p, 333). The group changed its name in 2002 to Kurdistan Freedom and Democracy as a way of transforming its identity. The group has been using unlawful force against civilians and government installations in Iraq and Turkey in pursuit of autonomy. The group operates in Europe and their primary target is the Turkish government, rival Kurds and Europeans. Further more, it employs some of the crude methods like murdering whole villages comparable only to the Peruvian Maoists rebels (White, 2009, p 333). Their objective is to establish a Marxist State which clearly portrays their ideological beliefs.

Organization
Terrorist organizations like the PKK normally start as guerilla groups who use armed struggle against establishments they regard illegitimate due to reasons like colonialism or oppression. Conflict and war is the pillar of their struggles to freedom. The PKK traces roots to 1974 when it was formed to fight for the independence of the Kurdistan region (Criss, 1995) as quoted in White (2009, p, 333). The group however has been guided from the beginning by the Marxist ideologies under which they wanted to establish the Kurdistan state.

Later, ideology, nationalism and ethnicity dominated the terrorist group cause. In the 1990s the PKK increasingly employed the use of language nationalism in pursuing its cause.

In most cases religion took over in later stages like the present day Islamic Jihadist groups. In a case that demonstrates its evolution, the PKK has used the verbiage of religion since 1995 (White, 2009, p 333). Like every terrorist organization, the PKK draws its strength from all or a couple of multipliers which motivate them to sustain their campaign.

PKK Force Multipliers
Force multipliers enhance the destructive power of terrorists (White, 2009, p 100). Technology, transnational forces, religion and the media comprise the force multipliers greatly relied on by terrorists. The most prized piece of technology that terrorists have acquired is the bomb. They always strike to cause destruction and send a message. When technology is so great many analysts believe it is used as a weapon by terrorists. The PKK has not displayed any aggressive adaptation to technology but did apply limited suicide bombings which were mostly carried out by women.

The media benefits both the legitimate authorities and the terrorist organizations. The government basks in the glory of trying to protect citizens while at the same time portraying the terror groups as savages. On the other hand the terror groups have enough exposure that renders their activities to be treated as serious and important. When the attacks are reported over and over the striking power of terrorists is magnified (White, 209, p 105). The PKK has dominated the international media since the 1970s which has given impetus to its activities. It has emboldened them and at times they have used the media against Turkey in its quest to join the European Union. Though Turkey and some international media organizations tried to give PKK activities a blackout, some media houses especially in Greece and Western Europe were sympathetic to their cause and gave them enough coverage. The group even had its own television channel the ROJ broadcasting in Denmark (Centre of Excellence Defense against Terrorism, 2007 p, 42).

Religion has always encouraged followers to sacrifice their lives for the good of their cause. In Jihadist groups, followers are encouraged to carry out suicide attacks on the enemy to reinforce their message. The PKK did use bombing techniques that were tied to extremists in the Islamic religion.  Ocalan, the groups leader encouraged limited suicide bombing (Marcus, 2007, p 243). The suicide attacks were carried out by women and Ocalan did not rely on them because he feared portrayal of their terror group being weakened and using desperate measures.

The world today has become so interconnected and terrorists have found a good platform to further their agenda. Transnational targets like tourist resorts have become popular with terrorist. With such targets, they are likely to increase and broaden their reach to their enemies. Besides, transnational economic forces have made it easier for terrorists to exchange information, plan and execute attacks more easily. The worst case scenario includes terrorists acquiring nuclear weapons or materials and the threat is real (Graham, 2008, p, 43). The PKK has targeted commercial installations like the 1991 setting fire of a shopping mall in Istanbul (CEDAT, 2007 p, 41).

Conclusion
Terrorists and their organizations are diverse, secretive and complicated. They are defined differently according to their activities and objectives. The PKK has waged a war of independence for close to four decades now. However, their full access to the force multipliers has been limited somehow. They nonetheless used optimally what they have at their disposal to advance their cause. Dynamism associated with the development of terror organizations complicates authorities efforts to combat them. That is why a collective international effort is needed to combat their activities.

The practice of law in England and Wales are divided into two, the barrister and the solicitor. The barrister is responsible for addressing the courts in cases. The expertise is the argument of advocacy and advising on the important aspects of the law.

Most barristers work either for the Government Legal Service, Crown Prosecution Service, local government, armed forces, or different commercial organizations (Author, 2010).

There are fives steps to becoming a barrister, deciding, academics, vocation, pupilage, and practice (Author, 2010).

The first step is deciding. The work is highly challenging. Someone who chooses to be a barrister should possess intellect, also excellent interpersonal and communication skills. One must also be quick witted, with a good understanding for the law. Finally, this is more than a career it is a way of life (Author, 2010) a barrister must have initiative to be successful.

The next two things that should be considered are academics and vocational skills. Academics deal with the theoretical while vocation is more on practical application. Someone who is preparing to be a barrister should do well in both.

During academic training, the person develops a strong foundation to legal knowledge. On the other hand vocational training puts learning to the test. A person applies knowledge in controlled situations like mock trials, and or debates.

When a future barrister accomplishes both then that person moves to pupilage. This is usually a one-year program when a practicing barrister guides the student into the profession first-hand. The step is usually all about research, reading cases, and familiarization with court behavior and customs. The student barrister may be given a case to handle but more often follows the mentor around. This time a student chooses the branch of law to practice.

After achievement of the first four steps, one is ready to practice. However, learning does not end here. It is a continuous education.

This process is ideal to identify who is dedicated to the profession. Being a barrister is hard. To complete the process is an achievement on its own. It certifies only the best is chosen for the position. However the tediousness of the process is financially crippling. Many are dissuaded because of this. Barristers are not paid much recovering training cost takes a lifetime.

The practice of a barrister is one of the toughest in law, but to the dedicated, it is one of the most rewarding.

1. Blood feud occurs when a victims family or clan retaliates against the person causing the injury. Lex salica is the doctrine of paying off a victims family for redress. Lex talionis is the primitive law of vengeance.  Wergeld is payment made to the victim. Friedensgeld is payment made to the government. Civil death means a person is stripped of all his civil rights as a result of a felony.

2. Free will means individuals are rational and are free in their choices. Thus, individuals who commit crimes choose to do so and must be punished for their offenses not only against the victim, but against God and the state.

3. Forms of punishment during the Middle Ages included physical mutilation, branding, and several types of public humiliation such as flogging, spitting, and garbage heaping. The rationale for such punishments was deterrence it was believed that social revenge was the greatest deterrent.

4. Bridewells are correction houses for those who commit minor offenses.

5. The classical school viewed crime as a phenomenon that can be understood and controlled and the individual as rational human being capable of choosing. Beccaria and Bentham opined that the punishment must be proportionate to the crime.

6. John Howard established the four principles in prison reform which are 1) improvement of security and sanitation 2) systematised inspection 3) fees abolition, and 4) reformatory regime.

7. The Great Law was a penal doctrine by the Quakers that eliminated capital punishment and pushed for more humane punishments such as hard labour.

8. The Walnut Street Jail was the first long-term prison to house felons in America.

9. Maconochie contributed to the reformative system in corrections in place of the punitive system.

10. The reformatory era was a period of systemic changes for corrections to shift toward a less brutal and less punitive nature.

11. Industrial prisons refer to the policy of transforming inmates into industrial workers.

12. The get-tough approach is a victim-oriented system characterised by harsher penalties or treatment of offenders.

Topic 3 Review Questions
1. The four main rationales for corrections are retribution, incapacitation, deterrence, and rehabilitation. Retribution is fuelled by moral balance that requires punishment for offenders. Incapacitation excludes the offender from society. Deterrence aims to discourage crime. Rehabilitation seeks to remedy crime.

2. Selective incapacitation aims to reduce crime by removing so-called career criminals that contribute to increase in crime volume. Research has refuted its claims that it will reduce crime and the costs of selective incapacitation are too high.

3. Offenders are individuals convicted of a crime while rehabilitating offenders are those who are in the process of restoring themselves for re-entry into society as productive citizens.

4. It is possible to punish and rehabilitate at the same time. An example of this is parole.

5. Retribution and deterrence are broadly compatible with each other.

6. Imprisonment is considered the greatest deterrent of all punishments. Humane imprisonment must not deprive the prisoner of his other rights.

7. Rehabilitation and humanitarian reforms are different terms. Rehabilitation means to provide the offender with skills to help him reintegrate with society while humanitarian reform means to improve prison conditions.

8. Martinson has a point when he said nothing works. The overcrowding of prisons today reflects how ineffective correction systems are in deterring crime.

9. The just desert model seeks retributive justice through moral balance and proposes that punishments are meted out in proportion to the degree and extent of the offense. Similar offenses must incur similar punishment.

10. Determinate sentencing gives a definite release time to the prisoner which cannot be altered by good behavior or other factors. Indeterminate sentencing gives an indefinite release like parole. Just desert proponents favour determinate sentences because they tend to support get-tough approaches on crime while treatment model proponents favour indeterminate sentencing because they aim for rehabilitation.

11. Mandatory sentencing assigns a specific penalty for a particular crime. Just desert proponents favour mandatory sentencing because they believe punishment must be uniform for similar crimes. Treatment model proponents favour discretionary sentences to take into account individual circumstances.

12. Sentencing disparity is considered a bad consequence of giving wide discretion to judges in sentencing. The application of sentencing guidelines aim to prevent arbitrariness and promote equal justice.

Topic 4  Review Questions

1. The prison population has been increasing in recent years. Possible reasons that could account for this is that there have been more categories of punishment for certain crimes and that judges are more apt to sentence offenders to imprisonment and not other forms.

2. Daily average refers to the number of people imprisoned in a day in a particular year. Reception refers to the number of prisoners the corrections system receives for an entire year. 3. The predominantly Aborigine-populated Northern Territory and Western Australia have the highest imprisonments rate among all territories. A possible explanations is that these areas have a higher degree of social conservatism that results to a much lesser tolerance toward crime.

4. A remand prisoner is one held in prison who have not been convicted of a crime. They are held while awaiting trial or if there are security risks should bail be granted.

5.  Males predominate the corrections system with 93 representation while females only 7.

6. Nationally, the rate of imprisonment of indigenous persons (as of June 2009) was 2,343 per 100,000. The highest imprisonment rate recorded is in Western Australia and the lowest in Australia Capital Territory.

7. The typical prisoner is male, single, has few educational qualifications, committed non-violent offenses in the past, and is a recidivist or  has seen prison previously on at least one instance.

8. This is because homicide attaches a life sentence. Hence, people serving sentences for homicide do not dwindle, they only increase.

9. Crimes that typical Aboriginal offending include violating good order, assault, driving, debts, drinking, and offences in family law.

10. Lincoln and Watson observed that the average age of incarceration among Aborigines is declining. More and more Aborigine children are sent to prison due to the policy of assimilation.

11. Lincoln and Wilson suggested that there are a number of violent crimes such as manslaughter and domestic abuse in the Aboriginal communities that are underreported and escape public notice, hence, hidden.

12. Lincoln and Wilson posited four theories of Aboriginal offending. The first theory is that the criminal justice system itself is inherently racist. The second theory is that present practices in corrections merely continue the oppressive and abusive practices during the colonial era. The third theory is that Aboriginal offending should be interpreted as expressive of resistance. The fourth theory suggests that Aboriginal offending should be seen as cultural conflict because Aborigines have different views on social control than Whites.

How crime, terrorism and corruption intersect in the global environment
Let me give brief definition of each term according to the dictionary
-  Terrorism means political violence.
- Crime Actions prohibited by law.
- Corruption Dishonesty for personal gain.
One important factor that help crime and terrorism is corruption.
-Nowadays, terrorists use a globalised crime networks to do their acts.
Factors that improve relationship among crime and terrorism is
-Globalization, the end of cold war, and rapid advancement in technology.

What is new in these interactions
The acts of terrorism and crime has always been carried out across borders.
- What is new is relationship of operations between the three.
- The closeness of their interactions and the way they come together  and work to do their operations well.
- Terrorist groups are now doing criminal activities to make money, to pay debt and get-back lost money.

How each of these factors intersects in the regional environment ie in the examples of southern Thailand and the southern Philippines
- Organized crime groups(Shelley, 2006) is penetrating into the country and  providing services that the government failed to make available.
- Free markets and fall in state intervention is also factors that have lead to the increase of crime in Philippine and Southern Thailand.
- In southern Thailand, key institutions and legislatures e.g. police, judiciary etc have been infiltrated by criminal interests.
- The socio-economic and political disparity in the Philippine and Thailand are factors helping the growth of crime and terrorism in the state.
- The government officials  are all compromised.

What approachesmeasures are required to address this threat
Firstly, there is a need to change the way we see crime
-  Crime is not usually given as much importance as that given to terrorism.
- The view that criminals commits crime just to get money and terrorists for political agenda need to be changed for this problem to be faced squarely.
- Every factor that has attributed to the success of crime and terrorism should be immediately corrected in both the South Philippines and South Thailand.

In conclusion, there is little or no difference between a criminal and a terrorist, they work together. The two groups get their resources through corruption. Terrorism and crime have been greatly assisted by improvements in technology.

A greater international cooperation, a more harmonized legislation will surely help to combat corruption, crime and terrorism

Saudi Arabia is one of the largest nations of the Middle East and the Worlds largest fourteenth state. It encompasses an area of 856,355 sq miles and has a population of about 27million people of whom about 2 are foreigners. The Saudi population is intense on the Western and Eastern Coasts as well as the Oases found within the interior parts of the country. The alignment exhibited is a result of the populations elusion of the large desert and semi-arid land found in most parts of the country. The country has its capital in Riyadh. Quite a number of terrorist groups have been linked with the country the predominant one being Al Qaeda which is blamed for the September 11th attack in U.S among other suicide attacks around the world.

This nation is recognized as one of the most authoritarian nations in the world ranking number seven out of the hundred and sixty seven countries rated. It is ruled under the government of monarchy where hereditary type of leadership is exercised.  Besides its a strong ally of U.S dating back to 1931. The country therefore faces challenge from extreme militant groups especially Al Qaeda which oppose close ties with U.S and its loyalists. Al Qaeda has a strong network extending its operations to multiple countries in Asia. It has been linked with many terrorist attacks in the world including 2004 March 11th bombing in Madrid as well as 1998 attacks on American Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in Africa among other suicidal attacks (Margulies, 2003).

Threat Assessment
The threat that has been posed by the domestic and international terrorism is so enormous that the world populations no longer live in peace and freedom. The ability of many states and their security organs to deal with the menace is of great concern. Moreover, the upsurge of terrorism activities around the globe is perturbing given the outsized number of innocent lives lost in the attacks. Al Qaeda has in the past proven to be a dangerous group especially to the U.S. The group leadership has declared a war against U.S and its allies and therefore its intentions are well known. However, assumption should not be used while assessing the intention of this group since it may be in a stage of identifying new targets. To begin with, Al Qaeda has leaders who are well informed on matters of war (Hayes, Brunner Rowen, 2007). Their leader Osama Bin Laden acquired skills while he was a soldier in the U.S force and therefore is averse with the information on the target. Additionally, the warlord is deputized by an Egyptian surgeon and Bin Ladens top adviser, Dr.  HYPERLINK httpwww.infoplease.comidA0886167 Ayman al-Zawahiri who is linked with many atrocities including the bombing of U.S embassies in Kenya and Tanzania. The surgeon is considered to be the most active radical in the recent past (Margulies, 2003). He therefore enforces this group making it to be more lethal.

The structure of Al Qaeda is so unique in such a way that it operates in many countries in units and these units network but the unit members do not know other members of the group in another unit. Additionally, the group can recruit youths and adults from anywhere in the world and the veterans as well as radicals from Afghanistan provide a suitable option (Hayes, Brunner Rowen, 2007). Due to the fact that the group had declared holy war on America and its allies, the group members as well as the affiliate groups are motivated to carry out attacks on philosophical ground and not necessarily on direct support from Al Qaeda. Moreover, this group is composed of extremists from Muslim background who believe in terrorism as holy war against the west.

Groups capability
Al Qaeda is purported to be financed by various charitable organizations in Saudi Arabia. These organizations were formed in early sixties to spread Islam in the region but later got involved in the funding of terrorist groups. One of the prominent NGO is International Islamic Relief Organization (IIRO) which is alleged to have financially supported many terrorist groups outside Saudi Arabia such as militant groups in Bosnia among others (Hayes, Brunner Rowen, 2007). This financial aid extended to Al Qaeda increases the capability of this group to carry out an international terrorism activity hence a threat to the world and more so the U.S.

This terrorist group has displayed a certain degree of effectiveness in its communication link. Though not affirmed, Al Qaeda may have taken advantage of clandestine operations to successfully convey information to its militants who subsequently carry out massive attacks. However, use of local human intelligence to provide tip-off would help the security agents intercept communication links of the terrorist group. Besides, their communication through internet, via mail or letters risks being intercepted too. The group has developed online tactics acquired from jihadin website and has carried out attacks in different places though sketchy. This group has networks in many Asian countries and the more it is networked, the more chances of intercepting its communication. Hence its capability is minimized under improved security surveillance (Hayes, Brunner Rowen, 2007).

Al Qaeda has been in existence for many years since its conception way back in 1989 following Soviets withdrawal from Afghanistan. The group has however, remained relevant in the world as far as terrorism is concerned (Margulies, 2003).

Criticality Infrastructure
Al Qaeda is a terrorist group that has a strong international network and operates in many countries including Pakistan which has been cited as a safe haven for the group and its leaders. This group under the leadership of Saudi-born dissident Osama Bin Laden has the potential to disrupt worlds security system, economies of the targeted nations as well as health and safety of the public. The aforementioned infrastructure is under threat from this group (Bevy, 2006).
 
Al Qaedas foremost goal is to suppress the American influence in the Muslim world in addition to compelling Americans to leave Saudi Arabia and other Muslim nations. Besides, Osamas wish and the ideology of Al Qaeda group are to witness the destruction of Israel as well as tumbling of western autocracy in the Middle East. He has categorically stated in the past that his wish is to unite all followers of the Muslim religion and institute, by force if need be, an Islamic state that adheres to the rule of the first Caliphs (Hayes, L., Brunner, B. and Rowen, B. 2007).
 
Infrastructures of the western nations are therefore main targets in the Muslim world. However, domestic safety and security of the nations within its operation declines as the terrorist group pursues its mission against the western world. Critical infrastructure include among others oil installations, power plants, embassies of the western countries and their citizens. Being an international organization, Al Qaeda is targeting military bases, transport system, commercial assets, nuclear power plants, public health as well as other key government as well as international facilities (Bevy, 2006). The governments targeted are therefore supposed to increase security surveillance and protection to their citizens.

Saudi Arabian government on the other hand has embarked on measures aimed at improving security within its area of jurisdiction. This was done after the rebellion of Osama Bin Laden who was angered by the decision of Saudi Arabian government to allow U.S troops to use its land to launch attacks against Iraq. The dissident thereafter declared war against the Saudi government and therefore the group poses threat to the country as well (Willis, 2007). Assessment and evaluation of key assets and vulnerable infrastructural spots in the communities is taken into account to update the existing data on security in Saudi Arabia.

Generally, terrorists prefer more attractive targets and the more a government invests more security, the more the chances that the group will substitute its target to a less attractive alternative. To protect these infrastructures, security needs to be beefed up at the targets in addition to improving surveillance as well as erecting physical barriers to stop and search intruders HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22FrancesL.Edwards22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad7  (Edwards,  HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22FriedrichSteinhC3A4usler22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad7  Steinhusler, 2007).

Vulnerability Assessment
Security need to be enhanced in aforementioned critical areas. This however depends on the information of vulnerability of these infrastructures to Al Qaeda attacks. This group has shown capability of carrying out international attacks and therefore precautionary measures need to be taken. The U.S government for instance has beefed-up security in the main terrorists targets since September 11th attack in Washington. This has proven to be expensive but worthy. However, Al Qaedas mode of operation is more intricate compared to other known terrorist groups. The group has claimed involvement in numerous attacks worldwide and tracking its movement and next target has proven to be a hard task (Bevy, 2006). Consequently, several nations more so those that are allies of U.S need to protect their critical infrastructure too. This is a wake-up call for the whole world to improve its security system after a series of attacks in several cities including the March 11th 2004 Madrid bombing and June 30th 2007 Glasgow attacks where Al Qaeda has claimed involvement.

General attention has been drawn to the critical areas where security is tremendously tightened. There are possibilities that this group may shift its attention and target more accessible areas that have security lapse compared to the critical infrastructures. Commercial enterprises are not heavily guarded given the fact that security is expensive and investment in it should be justified by the benefits that will accrue thereafter (Hayes, Brunner Rowen, 2007). Furthermore, the security presence within a location should be matched by the existing terrorism threat against that specific location. This assessment therefore helps the security agency to deploy security force to the right locations HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22FrancesL.Edwards22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad7  (Edwards and HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22FriedrichSteinhC3A4usler22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad7  Steinhusler, 2007).

Threat management
Threat management can be achieved in a variety of ways among them through risk reduction, risk avoidance and establishment of preventive measures. To begin with, a country threatened like U.S may adopt all the strategies listed. According to  HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22FrancesL.Edwards22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad7  Edwards and HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22FriedrichSteinhC3A4usler22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad7  Steinhusler (2007), adoption of preventive strategies is very important in protecting both public as well as the infrastructure under threat. Prevention may therefore include counter-terrorism operations such as interception of communication link, disruption of their plans and plots to carry out attacks. Increasing security surveillance around the country as well as the specific target is a necessity in the protection of infrastructures  HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22FrancesL.Edwards22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad7  (Edwards  HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22FriedrichSteinhC3A4usler22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad7  Steinhusler, 2007). It requires additional security guards and personnel but may prove to be beneficial in the long run though costly in the short-term.

Installation of surveillance equipments such as Closed Circuit Television as well as thorough screening of people and stop and search initiative are some of the ways threatened States can apply in the risk reduction strategy. Risk avoidance on other hand involves minimizing loopholes which the group may take advantage of. This has however proven costly in many circumstances. It involves giving in to the demands of terrorist groups and sacrificing daily life activities. Threat management using this strategy is short-lived since people have to continue with their daily life and therefore have to accept risks (Willis, 2007).

Conclusion
The threat assessment provides vital information that would help the security agencies worldwide to prioritize their investment as far as protection of infrastructure and the public safety is concerned. The U.S currently enjoys close ties with Saudi Arabia that dates back to 1931 as earlier stipulated. This relationship was further intensified by the Saudi governments decision to base for the U.S troops during the 1990 invasion of Iraq. The U.S as well as other western world can therefore implement the requirements provided in the assessment report.

Criminal justice professionals ought to have a basic understanding of the constitution preparations. Having a look at the Declaration of independence, it is evident that the people have rights which must be respected. In this regard therefore, the criminal justice professionals must understand that each person is entitled to his or her rights and it was the thirst for freedom that led to the declaration of independence. They should also comprehend that for peoples rights to be protected, the government had to be established among men by getting its legitimacy from the approval of the governed.
Notably, the criminal justice professionals must realize that incase the government violate these rights, the people have the authority to abolish such a government and put up another one that will be in a position to respect their rights. In other words, it is the duty of the people to get rid of abuse from a tyrannical government by abolishing the forms on which it is habituated for the sake of their future security. To be specific, it is the brutality of the colonizers that made the Americans to make a declaration of their independence. For example, the reign of King of Great Britain was marked by repeated injustices leading to a tyrannical form of governance.

Actually, the King of Great Britain had suspended representatives houses severally because of fighting for the rights of the people. He also dictated the functions of the judges as well as putting standing armies without the approval of the people (In Congress). For this reason, the people were robed their freedom and liberty to walk and work freely in their land. Redress was petitioned severally in vain and the Americans had to declare for their freedom by appealing to the supreme judge of the world to separate them with the British.

Following the independence declaration was the creation of the U.S. constitution which is of great significance to the criminal justice professionals. The most vital part of the constitution to the criminal justice professionals is the Bill of Rights, where the rights of individuals are outlined in the first document of the U.S. constitution. However, it is one of the articles in the American constitution that brought a lot of controversies between the Federalist and the anti-federalist. This is because the anti-federalist wanted a constitution that clearly outlined peoples rights as well as the governments power limit (Constitution of the United States).

Another point to be noted is the slave trade this is because the continuation of slave trade was a violation of human rights and even though many leaders agreed to it as a major compromise, there were still those who were against it completely such as Samuel Hopkins of Connecticut (Constitution of the United States). The criminal justice professionals should also know how the constitution state trade relations with other countries and within its boundaries. It is important as well for criminal justice professionals to be in a position to understand the Qs and As of the constitution. These keeps them updated on the day to day amendments of the constitution for example the manner of addressing the president was changed from His highness the president of the USA and protector of their liberties to the President of the United States (Bloom, 2010).

In conclusion, it is unquestionable that the criminal justice professionals should accurately comprehend the supreme law of the land in order to ease their work. This is because, they may work in the impediment, enforcement and research field as police officers. They can also provide help to fatalities of cruelty and distress. For this reason, preparation of the Declaration of independence, the constitution and the bill of rights provides a good knowledgeable basis for the criminal justice professionals.