Criminology

During the 1980s, the number of people who were using drugs in the United States greatly increased. There were many arrests made and most of these were as a result of cocaine use. This was period when there was an epidemic of cocaine usage. The judicial system established tight laws and as a result, the prisons were filled with the culprits involved. Most of the early courts put more emphasis on rapid handling of the cases rather than treatment issues. The traditional courts therefore were ineffective and only lead to an increase in use through reinforcing denial. This lead to the establishment of drug courts whose role was to reduce abuse by successfully rehabilitating the less violent offenders. To achieve this, they focused on continuous treatment and regular drug testing. These were intensely carried out under strict supervision and with the help of numerous rehabilitation services. The drug courts also helped in reducing recidivism rates (Government Accountability Office, 1997).

While in the drug courts, the individual undergoes a series of treatments and counseling sessions coupled with frequent appearances in court. The end result of completing the program is reduction in penalties, or sentences and getting the necessary skills to improve their lives (Government Accountability Office, 1997).

In New Jersey State where I reside, drug courts have been established. Research has shown that most crimes in the United States are as a result of drug influence and or alcohol. The reason for setting up these courts was to reduce prison overload, reduce drug use and recidivism. It has been proved that incorporating supervision and treatment is more effective in achieving these than relying on supervision or treatment alone (National Institute of Justice, 1999). Therefore, the drug courts have helped in breaking the cycle of addiction. It has also lead to reunions of families and reduced the number of babies born with drugs in their systems. The judicial system has also saved a lot of money which was used in the building of more jails. The outcomes of the drug courts are the reduction in rates of recidivism, re-arrest and re-conviction. The individuals have gained necessary skills, improved their study levels and maintained their lobs to support their families (National Institute of Justice, 1999).

There is need for the establishment of drug courts in every state to help in the processing of drug cases. This will offer a viable solution to the addiction of drugs. It has helped in the reduction of crime rates and reducing the cost incurred by the judicial system. The drug courts have lead to healthier families. According to a report from the US Department of Justice, many drug free babies have been born to drug addicts who graduated from the program. This emphasizes the success of these courts. The drug courts have enhanced cost saving in judicial system (National Institute of Justice, 1999).

There is no single day that passes without an incident of crime. It has become the order of the day in the U.S. and the world at large. The Criminal Justice System has a difficult task, not only in dealing with the criminals, but also the witnesses. Severally, the witnesses are subjected to fear because of very many factors. It becomes hard for a juvenile witness to give evidence in court in the absence of at least one of the parents. Additionally, the witness may be afraid of the aftermath of the court proceedings. The religious affiliation, race or tribe of the witness can also be a factor which would make the witness not to give evidence. It is therefore the task of the Investigator to ensure that the witness receives all the support that he or she needs for an effective trial. Otherwise, the case would not continue properly as a result of lack of witnesses.  Dispelling fear in Witnesses

Introduction
It is not easy for any person to recount on the ordeals of a crime scene. It becomes quite an uphill task for a person to give the details of the crime in court, where the accused is present. The most difficult task lies in the hands of the investigator, who is responsible for ensuring that all the fear that the witness has is dispelled. . According to House Government (2009), there are special arrangements for vulnerable or intimidated witnesses. This involves the witnesses giving evidence through live links, so as to protect the witnesses This essay seeks to analyze the steps that I would take as an investigator so as to dispel fear in a crime witness.

Any person who has witnessed a crime would feel very distressed and frightened to a point of failing to give evidence. As the investigator, I would inform the court on the behavior of the witness. In response to this, the court would give an order refereed to as a special measures direction which is made by the court dealing with the case. This results from an application written by the volition of the judge or the parties applying to the court proceedings (In Brief, 2010).

To start with, the age of the witness has to be put into consideration. It would be very frightening for a child to give evidence, probably because of the many people at the courtroom, and the questions asked by the prosecutor or the judge. As the investigator, I would ensure that extra care is taken on all juvenile witnesses. According to Bombet (2005), juveniles are very fearful especially when they realize their statements are put into tape. Therefore, I would curb this problem by ensuring that there is at least on parent of the juvenile. This is important as the child will get moral support, and therefore give proper evidence (In Brief, 2010).
 
It is also very important to determine the kind of offence that the accused has been tried for. In relation to this, the alleged circumstances that surround the offence should be carefully considered. Some cases have very horrifying incidents, especially those that deal with high class murder. In such instances, the witness must be very frightened to give evidence, possibly because of the trauma he or she might have gone through during the incident. As an investigator, I would ensure that the witnesses who have gone through trauma attend therapy first, so that it can lessen the fear associated with fear (In Brief, 2010).

There have been instances where the witnesses have been victimized as a result of their race or tribe. Therefore, all investigators should be very cautious on the witness ethnicity, based on the cultural and social background (In Brief, 2010).I would assure the witness that his or her race or tribe does not matter, and that justice is what is needed at the end of the day.

All citizens in America and the world at large are entitled to freedom of worship. Therefore, if a witness is fearful in giving evidence, I would ensure that the court takes careful consideration of the witnesses beliefs as far as his or her religion is concerned. In relation to this, the beliefs that a person holds regarding politics should also be taken into consideration as they are also very crucial in determining the manner in which a witness gives confidence (In Brief, 2010).
 
In some cases, the behavior of the accused and his or her family contributes to the way the witness gives evidence in court. This is especially when the family of the accused is very hostile to the witness. Also, there may be very many people who the witness may associate with, who may be very instrumental in instilling fear in them (In Brief, 2010). As an investigator, I would liaise with the police to beef up security to the family of the witness. In this way, the witness would be less fearful.  

Ordinarily, if any witness has gone through intimidation as a result of testifying in an investigation or a legal proceeding, the court has a right to charge whoever is responsible for the act. These kinds of people are normally charged for court contempt and interference with justice. Additionally, judges have the discretion of determining such cases without necessarily going to the Crown Prosecution Service. According to the U.S law, anybody who is found guilty as a result of intimidating witnesses is imprisoned for not less than five years. The offender can also be fined for such an offense. There are cases where after the witnesses have given evidence, the people retaliate against him. In such cases, the individuals who retaliate against the witnesses can also be charged for court contempt (In Brief, 2010). As an investigator, I would ensure that the accused is aware of all these, so that he or she may not threaten the witness.

There are several other ways in which the witness can be protected so as to ensure that there is no fear associated with him giving the evidence. To start with, the details of the witness are not supposed to be revealed to either the defendant or even his or her legal representative. Details such as the address of the witness are not supposed to be spelt out in the courtroom. If at any time the witness feels threatened by anyone, they are allowed to inform this to their care officers, or even ring 999 so as to get assistance. The court also ensures that the witnesses are given separate waiting areas, which are far from the accuseds family. When a witness is associated with very sensitive cases, the police arrange for their relocation in very safe places (In Brief, 2010). I would also follow the same, by ensuring that the details of the witness are kept private, and assuring him of his or her safety, together with his or her family.

Protection of the witnesses should continue, even after the offender is incarcerated. This encourages the would- be witnesses of a threatening case, as they are assured of safety even after the offender is incarcerated or released from prison. If at any one point the offender is released from prison, the court has the legal responsibility of ensuring that the witness is safe .This is through a legal action called an injunction. This is a legal order forbidding a person to come within a certain distance of another named individual. This legal action is very crucial as it makes sure that the offender does not come any close to the former witness. If such an action is taken, the witnesses would be assured of their safety, and there would be no fear when giving their evidences (In Brief, 2010).

Conclusion
It is very important for the investigators to assist the witnesses in dispelling fear for an effective trial. Otherwise, the case would take longer than expected. Since the wish of the Criminal Justice System is to complete a case within the shortest time possible, it is clear that the investigators have quite an uphill task.

The courts in this scenario should consider working as a unit in the administration of justice. Working as a unit will aid for instance in attending cases in an expedient manner as common cases can be refereed to a single court andor the personnel of one court can help another in the exercise. As the new court administrator, one goal should be to ensure a coordinated approach among all offices in the count and all courts to ensure an enabling working environment is in place.

Communication is of paramount importance in the execution of any activity (Grimes, 2005). To that end, the new court administrator must ensure a smooth flow of information among all workers and departments within the system. Efforts will be geared towards addressing the communication breakdown as it is only through a concerted approach that the issues affecting the court can be resolved.

Another way of reducing backlog of cases is by reviewing the existing cases and taking appropriate action (United States General Accounting Office, 2004). This should help identify abandoned cases and those that appear illegitimate. To this end, courts can issue form letters to parties involved in cases seen as abandoned and be warned that unless a party responds, the case in question stands to be dismissed.
Through the introduction of procedural provisions and personalized programs designed to assist parties to a case, the backlog can easily be dealt with (United States General Accounting Office, 2004). This would help in the solving of common cases without necessary coming to the courts. The classification of cases on the basis of commonality of characteristics would in dispensing justice in a large number of cases at once as single decisions can be arrived at.

One of the ways that human security can be threatened is through terrorism as can be evidenced after the incident of September 11th where terrorist attack resulted to people losing their lives and properties in destruction. This made the United States to be more alert on security and measures to counter any future threats and occurrences of the same nature were put in place. The protection of local and international welfare of all Americans was heightened with several projects being sponsored to ensure utmost security.

Terrorism can be defined as the violence or force against people or properties in violation of the state laws for the sole aim of coercion, intimidation or ransom (Nash 17). The terrorists will always employ threats among the public to create trepidation so that the citizens are convinced that their government security agencies are powerless in the art of preventing terrorism. The League of Nations defines terrorism as the any criminal activity which is directed against or planned to create fear in the minds of specific people or groups of people or the whole public in general (Nash 18).

Terrorists threaten human security through the use of chemical and biological weapons. The chemical agents are used by terrorist to kill or incapacitate their human targets or destroy animals and crops (Nash 18). Chemicals usually used by terrorists are tasteless and odourless and therefore very difficult to detect. They have immediate effect, which may range from a few seconds to a few minutes. The effect can as well be a delayed one meaning the effect is felt after a long time ranging from several hours to several days.

Biological agents have also been used to attack the unprotected population of civilians through the use of highly infectious toxins and microbes that are used to cause infections or death in people or animals and plants (Nash 18). The biological agents can either be dispersed to the target through airborne particles or aerosols. The terrorist may contaminate food and water sources in a manner that is tremendously complex to detect. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, there are two types of terrorism domestic terrorism and international terrorism.

Domestic terrorism is the violence that involves individuals or groups of terrorist whose activities are aimed at the governments elements or populations within their country without any foreign involvement. A good example is the organized crime gangs (Anderson and Garner, 416). International terrorism on the other side involves the individuals or groups of terrorists who base their actions to foreign nature (Nash 20). The terrorist activities under the foreign classification emanate from countries outside the United States or the activities go beyond the national boundaries.

International Terrorist group refers to any set or that that has significant subsets practicing international terrorism. Terrorist groups can be political movements that employ terror as a master weapon to achieve some political goal (Nash 21). Examples of these movements that have been branded terrorists include the 15 May Organization, Abu Sayyaff Group (ASG), Abu Nidal Organization, Ansar Al-Islam, the Lord Resistance Army, the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, the HAMAS and so forth.

There is significant need to stop the violence and extremism aspects of terrorism than to keep on defining and analyzing terrorisms as several innocent people are killed and economic progress brought to a halt. The establishment of regional and international mechanisms, which include joint operations against terrorists, international laws, as well as exchange of intelligence, are some of the steps which have been put in place to counter terrorism (Anderson and Gardner 412). Techniques already existing can be used to identify and intercept terrorists even when these methods have moral implications. An example of these technologies can be Signal Intelligence (SIGINT), which can be used to tap communications from terrorists and use the information to prevent any planned attack (Nash 23). SIGINT is the intelligence-gathering done by intercepting signals between two people, known as communication intelligence (COMINT) or between two electronic signals that are not used directly in communications (ELINT) (Nash 23). The two technologies may be combined for enhanced results.

The information accessed by these technologies is very sensitive and therefore it is encrypted and often involving cryptanalysis and traffic analysis to ensure total security and protection from decryption (Nash 23). Information is collected and used to identify critical terrorist activities that may cause public panic. The kinds of information that can be intercepted include voice data, text and signal channel.

Another important technology that can be used to detect and intercept terrorist communication is Lawful Interception (LI), which takes advantage of advanced technologies such as GSM, WLAN and WiMax. In these technologies, voce communication processes have had a paradigm shift from fixed network to highly efficient wireless technologies (Nash 35).

There are several ethical, moral and legal implications that result when using these technologies of intercepting information from terrorists. Each individual is protected from being infringed into his or her private life and the interception can be a violation of the rights to privacy (Nash 35). Unless the person (terrorist) is made aware that critical information is being accessed from him from a remote area through SIGINT or LI, the procedure is not legal and tends to infringe into the terrorists private life.

In general, homeland security is important in enhancing economical and social growth. Extremism and terrorism constitute a persistent threat to the security, peace and stability of all states worldwide. It is therefore important for the problem to be fully addressed using the greatest investments of technology and other resources to endsure that the problem is culminated.

In the United States, people began moving en mass to the suburbs in the 1970s. Issues concerning   race, education, and drugs were raising and those who could afford to leave left.  American cities were becoming overpopulated and people wanted more space. Areas that were once forests and farmland were cleared to build houses for people who wanted to move outside of the city but keep working in the metropolitan area. While some suburban areas have public transportation, most American suburbanites would agree that one cannot survive in the suburbs without at least one car. The  majority of public schools in most large cities in America are not well funded and are not known for producing well-educated students. Also, many of the public schools are considered dangerous. In the suburbs, because the area is smaller, the people feel that they can see where their tax dollars are going and be more involved with the schools.

I think it really comes down to safety. The American news media is very quick to focus on the problems in cities,  highlighting the dangers of urban living. Cities have just gotten too big and overwhelming and people tend to feel safer in the suburbs, where they can live in their own private house, away from crime. If the suburbanites do have a problem, they believe that the police will respond faster because the area is smaller. People living in the suburbs tend to think that because one needs money to live in the suburbs (need to buy a house, a car) this will keep urban problems out.
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My paper will show how the prison rates for juvenile offenders have been dealt with over the last 10 to 15 years. My paper will show whether education, prison-to-work programs and other factors have dropped the rates for these groups. Finally, my paper will feature why some programs have worked well and others have failed.

Teenagers have to sometimes learn painful lessons the hard way. That is what law enforcement thinks as that see the number of juvenile offenders who become habitual offenders increase because they cannot stay out of trouble. What needs to be done is having support systems and programs in place to prevent such activities from happening again.

In Washington State, there are an alarming number of boys who exhibit such bad behavior. According to December 2005 stats, nearly 83 percent of Hispanic boys, or more than 1,250 people, were caught again after being released from prison (RJO, 2005). That is the highest number for one ethnic group during that period. The second highest was the Native Americans at 80 percent. Caucasian recidivism was the fourth highest at 75 percent, but had the most repeat offenders of the five groups with more than 4,800 (African Americans and Asian Americans were the other groups studied).  (RJO, 2005)

As one might expect such problems grow with age. There are instances of pre-teens being caught for crimes. However, that pales in comparison with the number of kids who find themselves in trouble during their more impressionable years. According to the study, more kids between the ages of 15 and 17 found themselves incarcerated again after serving a sentence. Nearly 7,500 out of 9,000 people from this age group were sent back to prison (an 81 percent rate) after their initial release. (RJO, 2005)

The numbers decrease as the people get younger, but that does not mean there are all good. More than half of those people under 10 years old were back behind a judgejuvenile court or family court over time. In this case, five out of the nine first-time offenders found themselves in trouble again. (RJO, 2005)

Researchers also found a link between poverty and crimes. They discovered that children who grew up in broken homes with little or no parental controls were more likely to turn to a life of crime. Researchers noted that the further below the poverty line children, were the more likely they would make that decision. Roughly one in eight kids lived below the poverty line in 2002, the most recent figures available. (Snyder, 2006)

Not surprising to researchers was concluding that children raised in single-family homes (without either a mother andor father) were more likely to live below the poverty line and struggle to find any continuity within the home. While the number of children living in a two-parent home has decreased since the 1960s, the increase in single-families had nearly tripled in 2002. It went from 9 percent in 1960 to 27 percent in 2002. (Snyder, 2006)

In Missouri, the numbers are synonymous with those in Washington in that those who are incarcerated are more likely to repeat the bad behavior. (McElfish, 2009) Of the 12,000 teenagers who were arrested for first offenses between 2007 and 2008, more than one-quarter of them went back to prison. Of that number, 30 percent of those who were re-arrested were males, 19 percent were females. (McElfish, 2009)

The breakdown of the minorities was interesting in that African-American were more likely to return to jail than Caucasian prisoners. That led to a program that targets characteristics of those who are incarcerated more than once. That meant what type of student are they in school, what is their home life like, are there parental support (a mother, a father, both parents or relatives). They also found that the recidivism rates dropped as the citizens aged. In other words, the teenagers learned to grow up and act as productive members of society. (McElfish, 2009)

Other states had similar findings when it came to recidivism. The state of Pennsylvania was not an exception. The common thread was that the repeat offenders did not learn from their mistakes. That might seem both trite and obvious. However, it bears noting that the researchers in this study also used the same criteria Missouri and Washington used to determine their problems with juvenile offenders.

Throughout the state, some 19 percent of the more than 187,000 detainees were arrested for another offense. The percentages were pretty close in terms of re-occurrences in rural areas as opposed to urban areas. That means that despite the perception of crime happening more often in the city, the numbers suggest that the wrongdoing is happening in places. (Kalisk, 2009)

Actually, while there were more crimes committed in the city as opposed to the country. However, the numbers were in proportion to the entire population. There was roughly three times the number of second offenses in the cities compared with the rural areas. Researched found that more people live in the cities than in the country. (Kalisk, 2009)

Males also took the prize for reoffending more often than females during that time. Some 21 percent of boys were put back in jail. That was nine percent higher than the females. The numbers favored the boys in the number of re-arrests in the city and the country side. Researchers determined that the boys were doing the majority of crimes and not learning much from spending time behind bars. (Kalisk, 2009)

So, for the people who were arrested the first time was almost 30 percent likely to be arrested within three years of being incarcerated. It did not matter regarding the ethnicity of the offenders. They saw a need for education but the people who are in most need being able to move not realizing the answers are getting to them. (Kalish, 2009)
 
Back in Washington State, the recidivism rates during a period between 1998 and 1999 demonstrated a higher rate of repeat offenders. Researchers looked into those who were given parole and those who were denied. What they concluded was surprising because the number of parolees who were sent back to prison within one year reached 30 percent, or one out of every three persons paroled. (Barnoski, 2001)

They saw opportunity with programs aimed at helping those in need (mental or physical disabilities, substance abuse, etc.) the wisdom amongst the researchers was that even a little help can guide  first-time offender from becoming a second-time offenderor worse. Still, they also saw a need to work harder to get the message across that the detainees behavior would not be tolerated in society.
So what about rehabbing these teenage offenders We discussed what might make someone turn to a life of crime. Their home life was not pleasant, there was little or no parental guidance, school was often difficult andor communicationhuman interaction becomes a chore. When someone is locked up for a crime, particularly for a felony (murder, rape, etc.), where are the support systems to make this a one-time transgression

The Department of Justice believes that using different mentoring techniques may have some positive outcomes. Having the offender speak with a volunteer counselor as well as their probation officer may yield some positive results. Having them work at a job site might give the person skills than can be used for future employment. (Barnoski, 2001)

While these are some ideas that worked on the majority of people, there were some ideas that fell flat. Researchers found several plans that had little or no effect on the person.

For example, taking them on a field trip for team-building exercise was not effective for reaching teenagers. Early release programs did not work very well, either, which is surprising because it gives them a chance to prove that their time behind bars was time well spent. It does make sense given that the high recidivism rates of 30 percent can be attributed to that. (Barnoski, 2001)

Generally speaking, using a combination of counseling and interactive activities such as restitution worked with the offendersresonated with them. Other ideas pertaining to speaking with the offenders about their actions and the choices they made leading up to the misbehavior. Once they see the error of their ways, the hope would be to have the offender learn from his or her mistakes and work toward improving their world and the world around them. (Barnoski, 2001)

California tried implementing a program in the late 1990s to curb the stem of juvenile violence (which may have had a chilling effect on gang activity).  Researchers there wanted to note how the program using those who were granted parole and those who were not to see how they received their surroundings. Their conclusions would be published in 2001 with the detainees. They determined that the number of parolees given a second chance made the most of it. The use of education and rehabilitation helped keep many of the first-time offenders from making the same mistakes. (California 2001)

One other juvenile study had their numbers ranging widely. From 2006 to 2008, the number of repeat offenders rose from 248 to 274. Then, it dropped in 2009 from 274 to 224, the 2001 level. Not as surprising was the number of boys incarcerated was triple that of females arrested during that time. A total of 57 females between the ages of 12 and 17 were arrested during this period while 157 males in this age group were incarcerated during the same period. (Juvenile Unit, 2009)

It also bears noting that the numbers increased with age. Researchers found that just a handful of males and females were caught at age 10 and below (20 females total between ages 13 and 16 the boys had 25 people in jail at age 16 aloneand 67 in the slammer for that same age bracket).  When these kids turned 17, both categories jumped significantly. Males jumped into the triple digits with 100 and the females doubled their intake with 37 incarcerated. (Juvenile Unit, 2009)

What researchers learned throughout the past decade was that socio-economic factors played vital roles in deciding how juveniles behaved. Those who grew up in homes with two working parents, a support group and activities to entertain themselves were far less likely than people with single parents and little or no support system in place. The ability for society to make them productive members of society has been hit-or-miss. Some places succeeded in having their charges make the transition from incarcerated to integrated members of society. This was done through an aggressive campaign of mentoring, job skills and other areas to assist these people into not making the same wrong choices.

However, the system is not perfect. Nearly one in three juveniles found themselves back in prison within three years because they either forgot the massages they learned in prison or did not apply to them. Another possibility was going back to the same problems that led to the crimes (abusive home, one parent available, gangs, etc.) How can one measure the effectiveness of the programs if the people who are not learning from their mistakes are committing the same ones again

The hope is that more states share their findings with the federal government and the government steps in and makes a commitment to helping those underprivileged kids from resorting to a dead-end lifestyle. After school programs, joining a sports league, or even going to the library to read a book or interact with other people are step that can be taken to incorporate those who are having trouble to find a better way.

By turning these kids away or thinking that they are not worth saving now only adds to the problems in the forms of higher recidivism, higher crime rate and more taxpayer dollars being used to keep them locked up. There is hope and change for these teenagers, it is up to the people in power to decide what is best and execute whatever plan is necessary to prevent this from happening in the future.

Facial recognition technology refers to a computer driven application that automatically identifies an individual from his or her digital image by a comparison of particular facial features in a facial database and in a live image (Vacca, 2007, 95).  The technology creates a template of peoples facial configurations, such as the lengths of their noses and the angles of their jaws.  It thereby functions like other biometric technologies (e.g. iris scanning) that use biological features for the purpose of recognition (Kautzer, 2002).  According to Visionics, a manufacturer of face recognition software, the technology is capable of finding human faces anywhere in the field of view and at any distance, and it can continuously track them and crop them out of the scene, matching the face against a watch list (Kautzer).  As an example of its application, facial recognition software is nowadays used for entrance management.  Systems are being designed to automatically open doors to allow only those individuals whose facial features are recognizable because they have been fed into those systems (Face Recognition Entrance Control System, 2009).  Undoubtedly, this application of face recognition software could secure both public and private buildings from criminals, including suicide bombers  the scare of the time.
 
But, is there more to face recognition technology than meets the eye  In other words, is it reasonable to rely on face recognition technology for entrance control apart from other applications related to security  Through this research paper, we would deepen our understanding of this technology so as to discover how the future of our criminal justice system can be positively impacted by it and our world made safer.  

Description and Uses of Facial Recognition Technology
It is natural brain technology that allows humans to recognize fellow human beings.  According to Bruce  Young (1986), there are face recognition units in the brains of human beings (361).  Face recognition involves matching the products of structural encoding, that is, facial features that are spotted by the eye with previously stored structural codes (Bruce  Young, 361).  Vacca writes that there are three areas of the face that are primary targets in face recognition because they do not typically change (95).  These parts of the face include upper sections of a persons eye sockets, the part of the face surrounding ones cheekbones, and the sides of the human mouth.  Regardless of whether the brain also considers these parts of the face most crucial to facial recognition, Vacca explains three different techniques used in man-made face recognition technology, namely, eigenface systems, eigenfeature systems, and thermal imaging.  Eigenface image systems capture facial images and change them to light and dark areas (Vacca, 95).  In eigenfeature systems, certain features of the face, for example, the eyes and the mouth, are picked out and distances are measured between these features.  Thermal imaging systems, on the other hand, take thermal images of the human face, focusing on the pattern of blood vessels (Vacca).
   
Seeing the problems with facial recognition in criminal trials, where eyewitnesses are given the responsibilities of facial recognition software, it easy to understand why complicated technological systems for face recognition are indispensable for the criminal justice system (Jong, Wagenaar, Wolters  Verstijnen, 2005, 87-88).  In fact, eyewitness identification depends on so many factors that even the United States Supreme Court has expressed doubts about its use in criminal trials, especially when eyewitnesses are shown photographs of the accused (Pezdek  Blandon-Gitlin, 2005, 247).  Biometric technologies, on the other hand, promise an accuracy rate of at least ninety-five percent (Hopkins, 1999).  Unsurprisingly, therefore, use of facial recognition software is widespread today (Bharvada, 2002, 270).
   
Even though iris scanning and other kinds of biometric technologies are known to be far more accurate than face recognition technology, the latter is more widely accepted because it is least intrusive.  This technology does not require users to push, click, or insert anything into the system, despite the fact that it takes many experts to create eigenface, eigenfeature or thermal imaging systems.  Moreover, organizations using the face recognition technology do not require the installation of anything except a new software application.  The cameras already in place as well as pictures of individuals on file are enough for organizations that use this technology.  Hence, face recognition technology is cheaper than iris scanning, for instance, which requires reading setups (Rutherford, 2001).  According to Frances Zelazney, who works as the director of corporate communication at Visionics, yet another advantage of facial recognition technology as compared to other biometric technologies is that facial recognition provides for inherent human backup because we naturally recognize one another  If the system goes down, someone can pull out an ID with a picture as backup, something you cant do with fingerprint devices (Rutherford).
   
Hence, facial recognition technology is known as the fastest growing biometric technology in our day.  Law enforcement agencies and the military have been successfully using the technology for many years without the public being aware of it.  As an example, in the year 1988 the Los Angeles County Sheriffs Department, Lakewood Division, began using composite sketches of suspects as well as video images in order to conduct searches on a database of digital facial shots.  The department also has a photo database of sex offenders and plans to find suspects on this database.  Then there is the Gang Reporting Evaluation Tracking system that can be searched with the use of photos of suspects in order for law enforcement to circumvent false identification cards as well as information that has been presented by gang members.  Other applications of face recognition technology in the area of criminal investigation include the Integrated Law Enforcement Face-Identification System which incorporates a unique three dimensional composite technology to identify angled-view face shots more easily.  The system is meant to be very helpful in the correct identification of uncooperative suspects in addition to subjects that have been caught from a distance using video surveillance cameras (Jarvis).
   
Britain is known to use at least two hundred thousand video cameras for surveillance.  Many of these cameras are being installed with facial recognition technology today.  Typically these systems use computers to monitor cameras that are looking for recognized criminals.  As soon as the system is seen to identify a known criminal, the police are called.  Numerous United States embassies around the world are also using face recognition systems to keep criminals from entering the country.  The Israel-Palestine border control is similarly using the technology to reduce crime (Jarvis).
   
Given the importance of putting a name to a face in law enforcement, whether it is to solve crimes, protect the public, or to ensure security in jails, face recognition software is proving itself to be of tremendous value.  Sheriff Everett Rice with the Pinellas County Sheriffs Office in Florida employs the technology to positively identify and verify individuals (Case Study Pinellas County Sheriffs Office Improves Law Enforcement).  Some of these individuals have been recently arrested while others are about to be released (Case Study Pinellas County Sheriffs Office Improves Law Enforcement).  So far, application of the technology has been successful, leading to hundreds of positive identifications of criminals (Case Study Pinellas County Sheriffs Office Improves Law Enforcement).  The Pinellas County Sheriffs Office has applied the new technology in other ways as well.  As an example, the Sheriffs Office has expanded use of face recognition systems to its patrol cars, allowing street deputies to identify those individuals that have been stopped and are unable to produce identification.  Although there is no estimate for how many criminals the law enforcement agency would catch through this system, users of the system are confident that face recognition software would have a greater impact on crime control in the years to come.  In fact, application of face recognition technology by the Pinellas County Sheriffs Office is a model for other agencies involved in criminal investigation (Case Study Pinellas County Sheriffs Office Improves Law Enforcement).  

Problems with Face Recognition Software
The United States Department of Defense, with its focus on perfecting face recognition technology to spot criminals on the borders of the nation, had been funding scientific studies on face recognition technology for more than a decade.  Private companies were similarly convinced that this technology could dramatically help in combating crime within the borders of the United States.  Because of their belief, marketing of facial recognition technology became widespread during the mid-1990s (Rutherford).
   
Then came 911  the day that changed the security concerns of the entire world in the matter of a few hours.  There was increased interest in face recognition systems following the terrorist attacks on American soil.  Although Americans had viewed face recognition technology with skepticism before the attacks, they became confident that pervasive use of the new technology in security as well as public safety would protect them from similar attacks in future.  Indeed, face recognition technology could play an important role in the prevention of tragedies.  All the same, law enforcement agencies have discovered that in areas covered by the new technology, no terrorist has ever been identified.  What is more, despite the redoubling of efforts to create dependable face recognition systems after 911, the new technology suffers from problems.  Facial recognition technology faces a difficulty, for example, in the recognition of the effects of aging.  Digitally compared photos of individuals that had been taken eighteen months apart produced untrue rejections by the software application at least forty three percent of the time.  Furthermore, it has been found that the technology is more successful when used by casinos to identify cheaters, in welfare offices, and by drivers license bureaus, given the uniformity of lighting and use of the same cameras in these places (Jarvis OHarrow, 2001).
   
Whether or not face recognition technology could drastically help in the areas of security and public safety is yet to be discovered.  Still, successful application of the new technology in the Pinellas County gives us an idea about the extent to which face recognition systems may enhance public safety management.  Perhaps, if all law enforcement agencies around the country were to employ face recognition technology, we would be able to confirm that the new technology may, indeed, work wonders for public safety.  Thus far, this is only an inference, seeing as common use of face recognition technology is not yet in vogue.
   
It may also be inferred that extensive use of the new technology around the world could save nations from the acts of terrorists.  Although face recognition technology is not as foolproof as public safety officials would like, it is an evolving technology incorporating new methods and systems of identifying the innocent as well as criminals.  In October 2001, the United States Senate subcommittee started to look into the potential uses of face recognition monitors in fighting terrorism (Rohde, 2001).  In point of fact, the government and the public at large have already understood that face recognition software may be very useful for security and public safety.  In the wake of the attacks on American soil, Viisage was requested to participate in a program at the Logan Airport to evaluate the potential of the new technology as a screening application for employees (QA with Viisage CEO Bernard Bailey).  The National Institute of Standards and Technology  playing a significant role in the enhancement of United States homeland security with projects that span a wide range of study areas and by helping the military, law enforcement, building and airport security besides other entities  has also developed a team of face recognition experts that work with federal agencies to improve computer applications with face recognition.  It has been reported that error rates in face recognition technology worked on by the National Institute of Standards and Technology dropped by almost fifty percent between the years 2000 and 2002 (Technologies for Public Safety and Security, 2007).
   
But, if technological experts are eventually able to address all problems related to face recognition software at present, it would still take training to perfect use of this technology.  Consider the case of Rob Milliron, a construction worker, who was enjoying his lunch in an entertainment area of Tampa, Florida, when a government camera equipped with face recognition technology took his photograph.  The photo was used without Millirons consent in an article published in the U.S. News  World Report.  When a woman in Oklahoma misidentified Milliron after seeing that photo and contacted the police department to have him arrested on child neglect charges, the man in the picture was forced to explain his innocence to law enforcement agencies (Alexander  Richert-Boe).  He told a newspaper once his explanation had been accepted They made me feel like a criminal (Alexander  Richert-Boe).

Conclusion
Although Millirons case raises ethical concerns regarding governmental use of facial recognition surveillance, it shows direction to both potential and existing users of this system in the effort to perfect its use.  After all, face recognition technology is essential to law and order in our day.  Richard Chace of the Security Industry Association stated upon seeing videotaped footage of a terrorist walking in the Logan Airport that if the security cameras had been equipped with the latest in face recognition technology, it would have been easy to prevent a hijacking (The Today Show, 2001).  However, Howard Simon, executive director of the Florida American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), said that face recognition software might lead to racial profiling (ACLU Probes Police Use of Facial-Recognition Surveillance Cameras in Florida City, 2001).  However, there is no evidence that racial profiling has occurred due to the new technology.  Instead, there is widespread belief that face recognition systems would be of tremendous help in the security of the nation.
   
Indeed, face recognition technology is expected to go a long way in helping the nation and the world at large.  So therefore, improvements in the face recognition technology are awaited in order to put the new technology to better use than before.  Thus far, extensive use of the new technology has been impeded by scientific errors, for example, the fact that face recognition technology may not easily detect the effects of aging.  With new scientific research, however, such errors may be reduced and eventually done away with.  Pinellas County is already appreciative of face recognition technology.  Other law enforcement departments around the United States and around the globe may similarly find that it is better to put the technology to good use despite scientific errors than to avoid it altogether.  What is more, it must be remembered that there is no technology in the world that may be foolproof at all times.  Even law enforcement officers are error-prone.
   
It is for this reason that Garcia (2006) mentions the necessity of complementing facial recognition software with tamper detection sensors, line security supervision, door monitor switches, authorization verification checking, personal identification number checking, personal identity verification, personnel tracking, and two-door portals when this technology is used for entrance control (161).  As we have discovered through this discussion, face recognition software is not adequate on its own for entrance management because scientists have not been able to make it foolproof thus far.  Thus, organizations that purchase the Face Recognition Entrance Control System designed by FIRS Intelligent Technology (Shenzhen) Co. Ltd. or the likes of it must consider complementing the technology with other security check systems.  The Face Recognition Entrance Control System designed by FIRS Intelligent Technology sends a command for the door to open as soon as an individuals facial features are recognized (Face Recognition Entrance Control System).  But, this technology may or may not ensure security.  Then again, it depends on the security needs of the premises where face recognition software is installed for entry management.  Clearly, facial recognition technology would not ensure safety for all organizations that install it.  The fact remains, however, that it is better to use and perfect the use of this technology than to discard it altogether.