Criminology

Human trafficking has been an issue of concern over the recent past years. This has been contributed by various factors including involvement in commercial sex industry. Human trafficking involves the movement of people including men, children and women from their own country or within their country by using force. Children trafficking have been common with traffickers taking advantage of the minors (Stotzky Irwin, 1993). The main essence of human trafficking is exploitation of the victims. Human trafficking can be carried out within victims own country or across borders. Sexual exploitation has been common amongst young girls who are trapped without knowing the purpose.

Children are also been involved in sexual exploitation amongst other alarming activities such as forced labor. Other activities in which victims are involved include stealing and begging which may be organized with the essence of making money (Klein Eric, 1998). Human trafficking involves taking advantage of scenarios such as vulnerability and poverty. This makes human beings end up being placed in worrying situations such as exploitation, bondage in debt and slavery. Human trafficking has been ranked amongst the highest crime practiced in the world with the numbers increasing continuously every year.

Human trafficking differs with smuggling of human in that it involves use of force and violence. Human trafficking is a crime to the country of transportation as well as t the victims. Human trafficking victims are also taken as participants of crime. In this case the crime is not committed by the victims but by the traffickers.

Red Cross plays a role in children trafficking. Red Cross participates in suppressing organized crimes such as human trafficking. According to the Red Cross Movement, trafficking involves, harboring, transferring and transportation of people by using force or even violence. Other criteria involved in human trafficking include abduction, deception and taking advantage of vulnerability. Exploitation is the key issue which surrounds human trafficking. Exploitation involves slavery, forced labor and even sexual exploitation.  Organ removal is another factor which may contribute to human trafficking.

There are international networks which participate in controlling human trafficking. Traffickers get a lot of profits by exploiting victims of human trafficking (Barker Mark, 2000). Human trafficking is a worrying issue which needs to be addressed in United States and other countries due to its consequences on the victim. Victims involved in human trafficking originate from different parts of the world. This calls for cooperation from various nations to culminate this act. European Nations serves as the major destination for trafficked persons. There is the need to address human trafficking in United States and other parts in the world. This can be achieved by identifying the causes of human trafficking. The chain of trafficking has to be considered in laying down a comprehensive strategy to address the issue. This calls involvement of the various governments and other non-government organization such as Red Cross.

Red Cross has formulated some mandates to enable address the issue of human trafficking. The mandates are directed towards alleviating suffering of human beings and mostly those in vulnerable groups. Red Cross covers a large are of operation local and international. This enables Red Cross respond towards humanitarian needs which involves human trafficking easily (Youngs Richard, 2004).  Red has some objectives while carrying out duties. This includes human trafficking prevention, curbing chances of victims being re-trafficked, offering assistance to trafficked persons and advocating  for humane treatment. This enables give a fair treatment to victims of human trafficking.

In conclusion, human trafficking is a problem across the globe. Human trafficking victims may include male, children and female. The major purposes leading to human trafficking include labor and sexual exploitation. Vulnerable groups are highly affected by human trafficking. Children are highly targeted by sex traffickers due to vulnerability and their demand in sex.

A trial by a jury is a civil or criminal lawsuit where the cases is presented to a panel of selected jury who determines the factual questions and influence the final ruling. The number of jury in a case is usually twelve and although this differs between states .The trial by a jury is recognized by the US constitution as fundamental right that allows the accused to choose trial by a jury or a judge. In a jury trial, the first step is the selection of the jury. The jury is selected from a jury pool list or the venire which is compiled by the court. This is a well screened to eliminate non eligible people.  When the jury is selected from the pool, it is then questioned in a process called voir dire which is a French term meaning speaking the truth (Jackson, Doran, 1995). This questioning is done to determine whether the jury is biased or whether they   have prejudice or have ulterior motives in the case
The court attorneys may challenge some of the jurors to be exempted from the jury. The challenge of the jury consists of the two types of challenges the challenge for the cause and the preemptory challenge i.e. challenge against the cause. When the choice of the jury is complete, the jurors are questioned in a process called jury paneling and then take an oath for the jury assigned to a specific case. In general, 6 jurors and 2 alternate jurors are selected for criminal and civil trials while twelve juries and 2 alternating jurors are selected for others offenses. The jury trail begins by an opening statement that represents the expectations of what the evidence should prove to each side in the case.

These statements are not regarded as evidence. The next step in a jury trial is evidence presentation to the courts and testifying of the witnesses in the case. The witnesses are cross-examined by each side on the case (Kressel, 2002). At this stage, material evidence such as weapons, documents and others are presented as exhibits and are numbered for identification. In the presentation of the evidence, the law allows the court attorneys to object or oppose a question, opinion by the attorney. The judge is permitted by the law to decide whether to overrule or maintain the objection during the hearing of evidence .The judge guides the jury and the accused on the relevant information that should be considered in the case when all the evidence is presented, the case is adjourned. After which the attorney delivers the closing argument and convinces the jury to rule in favors of the client.

The next step is the presentation of instructions of the law to the jury by the judge this process called charging the jury. The judge explains the provisions and procedures of the law that will guide them in the   verdict. The process is termed charging the jury. This eliminates the trend by the jurors to decide the case based on what they would like the laws to be but as per stipulations of the law. The last and the final step is the deliberation by the jury in which the jury enters the deliberation room to decide on the verdict to be handled to the defendant. A foreman of the jury is elected who presides over the open ended discussions in a fair manner in reaching the verdict unanimously (Possey, Lawrence, 2005). When a verdict is reached, the foreman delivers the verdict to the court clerk verbally for criminal case and written for civil case.  When the verdict is delivered, the jury is dismissed
All the jury trial proceedings follow the constitutional trial rights that are enacted by the constitution in the sixth amendment. One such provision is the right for a speedy trial which is outlined by the supreme court through the ad hoc test of balance to determine whether  the accused right of speedy trial has been violated. The other provision under the constitution is the right for an impartial jury which requires that the jury to be unbiased and unprejudiced in the case. This is determined in the trial through the voir die process of questioning which determines whether there is bias in the jury.

The key factor that determines the impartiality of the jury is the panel or the pool from which the jury is selected .The law requires the jury to be selected from a wide range of people from the community to eliminate bias. Another right enacted under the jury trial is the right to be informed of prosecution. The accused must be given the right to know the nature and the reason of his accusation. The law requires that an indictment must define the crime precisely and must not be vague (Kressel, 2002).

Other rights enacted in the jury trial are the rights of the defendant to cross examine the witnesses to prove that the allegations against him or her are correct. Other  rights enacted by the trial are the right of counsel which represents the right  to  choose the attorney to handle the case and  the right of self representation.

Organized crime in the United States has a long, checkered history, just as it does around the world. When one studies criminology, it is important to note organized crime, as this is one of the most complicated and diverse crime types in existence. Additionally, it relates to the global nature of the study of criminology, as organized crime in America has many of its roots in organized crime around the world. Though the idea of organized crime is something that most people are only exposed to in the movies or in television, it is actually a real thing that can come in many different types. Gangs represent an element of organized crime in the United States, and La Cosa Nostra also has a very real presence around the country. Though organized crime is more often than not something that takes place beneath the headlines, its impact can be felt in a wide range of different industries.

When talking about organized crime, one must start with La Cosa Nostra, which to laymen is The Mafia. Though most folks only hear about this in films like The Godfather, the mafia actually has a presence throughout the United States and it has a hand in a number of industries. These days, it is more refined and it is mostly an economic powerhouse, whereas in the past, the mafia has been a more violent thing. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, this is still the top organized crime threat in the United States and it did not have much competition for that top spot. The FBIs website states, La Cosa Nostra is the foremost organized criminal threat to American society.

Literally translated into English it means this thing of ours. It is a nationwide alliance of criminalslinked by blood ties or through conspiracydedicated to pursuing crime and protecting its members. La Cosa Nostra, or the LCN as it is known by the FBI, consists of different families or groups that are generally arranged geographically and engaged in significant and organized racketeering activity. It is also known as the Mafia, a term used to describe other organized crime groups (FBI). This mafia presence is the strongest in the northeast, where it retains Italian immigrant roots. Places like New York, New Jersey, Philadelphia, and Boston are homes to some of the worlds foremost organized criminal minds, and the leaders of the powerful families make their home in these places.

Speaking of the mafia in the United States, one must understand what their enterprising is all about. These days, they control certain industries and this is where most of their power comes from. In the northeast and around the United States, they control the gambling industry, the loan sharking industry, and a host of other seedy dealings. These groups typically get in on racketeering rings and they will sell protection for the right price, as well. Arms trafficking and drug trafficking play a role for many of these individuals, but this is a more high stakes game that they will play very carefully. They do this in order to avoid public scrutiny, as todays mafia is truly all about staying under the radar. To that same point, the mafia in the United States has stated objectives that include staying away from those crimes that might attract the public eye. According to a book written by Pino Arlacchi, this has become the new mode of operation for La Cosa Nostra in the United States.

According to his work, Mafia Business The Mafia ethic and spirit of capitalism, mafia members are instructed to stay away from things like kidnapping and they are excepted to avoid petty crimes like theft or burglary (Arlacchi). This is because, even though the mafia is one of the purveyors of crime in the United States, it sees itself as something above that. It is a group that is only interested in going out and committing crimes that involve an element of smarts and wit. This is one of the tenets of the Italian Mafia that has always set it apart from other organized crime groups, and it has had a practical implication, as well.

Though the United States government is well aware of the mafia and its involvement in crimes around the country, it is difficult to pin any of these crimes on individuals and fingering the whole organization because difficult, too. As such, the government certainly does not leave the mafia alone, but it does not go after them as vehemently as one might imagine. Because the crimes are mostly done in private and they do not attract the attention of the media or the public at large, the government does not feel the need to step in and act immediately to put a stop to the dealings. This has been a strategically smart move by the mafia members, and it has helped them sustain criminal activity for decades in the United States.

When one studies criminology, its important to look at causes and motivations for different kinds of crimes. This is one of those times when the causes and the motivations for crimes are important, as it truly defines what organized crime in America is all about. It has grown and evolved over time to be more than just a criminal effort. Organized crime defines entire families and entire communities in the United States, both within the mafia and in other groups that might be easily described as organized criminals. In trying to slow down the growth of organized crime, criminologists have to look at these motivations and understand that, at this point, the is engrained into the different communities and their culture. It becomes a large problem, as children are raised to take part in it. Crime becomes the norm, while following the law would be the thing that would be considered strange in many of the communities around the country where organized crime is so prevalent.

One would be remiss if the focus on organized crime in America stopped with the Italian mafia, since there are so many other groups that make up organized crime around the country. The Russian Mafia, for instance, has a presence that is very real, even if it is less advertised. In his book, Russian Mafia in America, James O. Fickenauer writes about how the mafia efforts in Russia are more advanced than could ever be imagined by those in the United States. He does indicate, however, that an organized Russian Mafia in the United States is not nearly as strong as its presence in Russia, and that media creations sometimes overrate this fact (Fickenauer). Still, one of the interesting things that can be taken from this is that there is sometimes cultural bleed-over that takes place from one country to another. Because the Mafia is such a key, integral part of Russian society, those people who come to America from Russia often take part in crimes, just because it is what they know. These crimes by Russian immigrants get a lot of attention, but few individuals make the connection between the Russian immigrant crime and the existence of crime in their homeland that shapes their actions. This is another portion of the organized crime sector in the United States where one can see that it is culturally engrained. With organized crime, the acts being committed are a part of something much bigger than just racketeering or loan sharking. They are a way of life, which is especially troubling for those who seek to put an end to organized criminal activity.

In all, organized crime in the United States has many different centers where it has taken a strong hold. In addition to the mafia centers mentioned, there are gang controlled areas across the country, in places like Los Angeles and even places like Memphis, Tennessee. Organized crime is much more than just a bunch of acts that are coordinated by a leader, though. It is a sub-culture of its own, which is why it is so important to the study of criminology. The crime becomes a way for people to come together and identify with each other, whether one is talking about the actual mafia or the gangs that make their living in this way. Additional, the crime becomes how entire communities make a name for themselves and how they set themselves apart. This is especially troubling for criminologists, and it is something that has been studied extensively by those who work with police forces.

Terrorism is described as a threat to security and peace of nation whereby the threats results to mass losses of life, property destruction, widespread of diseases and injuries, genetic mutation which results to abnormality, displacement of large pool of population and retarded economic development. Terrorism comes in different trends and they keep on changing with technological innovations. Terrorism attacks are global threat that spares no nation either developed or developing the effect is severe in poor nation growth and development.

The article focuses on terrorism by annotating some bibliographies on terrorism and the relevance of the annotated sources. The purpose of the research is to find different books, articles and journals that describe terrorism. The article evaluates terrorism from different nations, trends, threats and policies that have been put in place to combat terrorism. The documented bibliographies are useful in finding relevant information that will enhance understanding terrorism from different authors point of view. The general relevance of the evaluated research and facts found is mapping of global insecurities to detect, deter and prevent terrorism which are the main objective of national security and defense intelligence system.

Annotated Bibliography on Growing Number of Terrorist Groups
Barth, R. J., Li, T., McCarthy, D., Phumiwasana, T. and Glenn Yago, G. (2006). Economic Impacts of Global Terrorism From Munich to Bali Social Science Research Network. Review available at  HYPERLINK httppapers.ssrn.comsol3papers.cfmabstract_id892033 httppapers.ssrn.comsol3papers.cfmabstract_id892033

 The aim of the authors is to come up with reason of economic growth in relation to terrorism. It is evident that terrorism incidents have negative impact on financial growth and capital structure of the nation. Terrorism incidents often results to property destruction which has a significant effect on economy of the nation. The article is very important for the researcher who wants to analyze the effect of terrorism in a given state.

Bowman, S. (2002). Weapons of Mass Destruction The Terrorist Threat. Congress Research Service Report for Congress, the Library of Congress. Specialist in National Defense Foreign Affairs, Defense and Trade Division.

The use of nuclear and biological chemicals weapons in terrorism is on rise and the control over the issue is lost due to technology. The article asserts that there is need to combat terrorism by identifying the factors that influence and speed terrorism. The evaluation from the article gives the facts of why there is need for use of science and technology to counter terrorism. It is evident that most terrorism incidents are influenced by use technology and science invention and the most effective policy is science and technology.

Carus, S. W. (1997). The Threat of Bioterrorism National Defense University, Strategic Forum Institute for National Strategic Studies.

Carus explains the use of biology agents for terrorism, the threats and challenges of biological agents. The primary responsibility for responding to bioterrorism attacks will be based on civilian organizations includes local and state emergency response groups and federal agencies with disaster response missions. The article gives relevant strategies in dealing with bioterrorism threats by use of science techniques.

Corlett, A. J. (2003). Terrorism A Philosophical Analysis. Philosophical Studies Series 101. Kluwer Academic Publishers

Corlett book describe the research work on terrorism secession and its related perspectives such as obligation of abiding by law, pacifism, civil disobedience, non-violence direct actions, political violence, revolutions and assassinations of  the past over 15 years. The book has rich information to enable researchers understand terrorism incidents. The book is very useful by providing the facts of terrorism and its concept by specifying the trend s of terrorism for the past 15 years.

Country Reports on Terrorism. Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism Chapter 6 -- Terrorist Organizations. The Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affairs. U.S. Department of State, Diplomacy in Action. Review available at  HYPERLINK httpwww.state.govsctrlscrt2007103714.htm httpwww.state.govsctrlscrt2007103714.htm

The article focuses on terrorists organization, U. S Government designated Foreign Terrorists Organizations. This article discusses the origin of the terrorist organization, its activities, the strength and weakness of the organization, its area of operation and the external aid. From the evaluations in article, terrorism attacks occur if there is support and the nation involved lack the policies.

Cregory, K. (2010). Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) (aka, PIRA, the provos, glaigh na hireann) (U.K. separatists). Council on Foreign Relations. Review available at  HYPERLINK httpwww.cfr.orgpublication9240provisional_irish_republican_army_ira_aka_pira_the_provos_glaigh_na_hireann_uk_separatists.html httpwww.cfr.orgpublication9240provisional_irish_republican_army_ira_aka_pira_the_provos_glaigh_na_hireann_uk_separatists.html

The provisional Irish Republican Army outgrowth old group known as the Irish Republican Army which fought and they successfully challenged British rule in the whole of Ireland.  Warfare culminated in the creation of an independent Irish Free State, civil war was launched and force was won by pro-treaty Irish. The old IRA maintained a low level campaign of violence with aim of reuniting Ireland. However, IRA was perceived to be the most dangerous terrorist organizations in the world since the activities dwindled significantly.

Daugherty, M. (2003). The Real IRA. The British continue to claim sovereignty over part of our country and while that is the case armed struggle will always be justified. RIRA Televised Interview, February 2003.  Review available at  HYPERLINK httpirelandsown.netRIRA.html httpirelandsown.netRIRA.html

It is believed that Ireland should be ruled by the Irish and the only way that was available was to halt the oppression through armed struggle. The RIRA group was responsible for Omagh bombing which killed 29 people in 1998. RIRA further planted and detonated at least 12 bombs in the greater London and they succeeded in bombing BBC Television centre.

Fletcher, H. (2008). IRA Splinter Groups (U.K., separatists) (Continuity Irish Republican Army, Real IRA, Irish National Liberation Army) Council on Foreign Relations. Review available at  HYPERLINK httpwww.cfr.orgpublication9239p2 httpwww.cfr.orgpublication9239p2

The conflict on Northern Irelands arose between the Protestant unionists who wanted to maintain their link with London and against Roman Catholic republicans who wanted to reunite Northern Ireland with the independent Republic of Ireland. The conflict lead to l Irish Republican Army, a terrorist group who engaged in conducted a violent struggle against British rule for three decades until peace treaty was signed.  The Real IRA and Continuity Irish Republican Army were both   active terrorist groups.

Frazer, R. J. (2003).Terrorists Groups are Aligning to Conduct Global Terrorism. Breyer, State University. Review available at  HYPERLINK httpwww.dissertation.combook.phpmethodISBNbook1581122098 httpwww.dissertation.combook.phpmethodISBNbook1581122098

The article focuses on exploring details and developments of terrorists coalitions from previous single groups. The articles not only discuss chronology of terroristic events but it also explores the underlying reasons why terrorist events are evolving.

Technology innovations such as cell phones and internet for mass communication have played a major role in terrorism through global assaults.  Terrorist activities, location and trends are analyzed to predict future occurrence of events.

Gannon, C. J. (2000). Global Challenges for the 21st Century Nonproliferation and Arms Control. National Intelligence Council to the Defense Threat Reduction Agency Norfolk, Virginia
 
John Gordon played a major role by being champion of National Intelligence Council to the Defense Threat Reduction Agency mission to prevent the use of weapons for mass destruction, to reduce the present threat and to be prepared for the future threat through wide collaboration experts inside and outside the US Government. Terrorism poses threats to American and Non-American citizens, soldiers, territories, allies and global interests.

The author describes terrorism in different perspectives. One is that there is missile threat, most cities face ballistic missiles threats globally due to direct foreign assistance and indigenous technology developments. Another perspective of terrorism is biological and weapon threats, the sophistication of use biology and weapons pose a threat on intelligence of experts on dealing with terrorism. Thirdly, there is a threat posed by nuclear proliferation which is used to destroy a large mass of population trough bombing.

Greenwald, L. A.  (2010). Perspectives on Terrorism, Trends in Terrorist Activity and Dynamics in Diyala province, Iraq, during the Iraqi Governmental Transition, 2004-2006 Journal of the Terrorism Research Initiative. Vol. IV, Issue 1. Enhancing Security through Collaborative Research. Review available at  HYPERLINK httpwww.terrorismanalysts.comptindex.phpoptioncom_rokzineviewarticleid105Itemid54 httpwww.terrorismanalysts.comptindex.phpoptioncom_rokzineviewarticleid105Itemid54

Greenwald book suggest that terrorist uses some range trends to carry out terrorism attacks. Iraqi terrorists used tactical trends by deploying use of fire arms and suicidal bombings. The other prevalent trend was victimization the victims who were targeted for attack were civilians, police and then the government. The form of terrorism was localized violence trend where violence was used to attack cities.

International Risk assessment Terrorism Trends in 2009. Terrorism Trends in Asia in 2009 Mixing Terrorism and India-Pakistan Tensions An Explosive Cocktail.
  HYPERLINK httpwww.intl-risk.com www.intl-risk.com

From the authors point of view, it is evident that terrorism has a significant threat of peace and security in South Asia. Lack of effective response in India and Pakistan states to deal with terrorism has majorly contributed to environmental tensions and by any means could ignite military conflict between the states. Terrorism is deeply intertwined in complex political and national agendas of Pakistanis and Indians causing distrust between the states. Terrorism in South Asia is a principal tool for global conflict against terrorism and military activities. The book provides insights on how terrorism occurs in nations.

Kass, L. (2005). Syria after Lebanon The Growing Syrian Missile Threat. Middle East Forum, Middle East Quarterly Fall 2005, vol. XII, No.4 pp. 25-34. Review available at  HYPERLINK httpwww.meforum.org755syria-after-lebanon-the-growing-syrian-missile httpwww.meforum.org755syria-after-lebanon-the-growing-syrian-missile

Kass describes four defense and intelligence concerns about Syrian regimes. Despite The success of international pressure on forcing Damascus to withdraw its troops from Lebanon, it is evident that Syrians are still in attempt of acquiring sophisticated surface-to-surface missiles. Secondly, U. S intelligence force suggests that Syrian state is a custodian of Iraqi biological and chemical weapons for mass destruction. The third issue is that, it is not clear if Damascus got the benefit from networking with Abdul Qadir Khan, a Pakistani nuclear scientist who sold nuclear weapons to a group of rogue regimes. Lastly, Bashar al-Assad continues to connect with agents of international terrorists, he shows no sign of declining which has lead U.S. government to designate Syria as a state of terrorism sponsors. From the article, one gets to understand terrorism in Syrian government, and the components of terrorist threats.

LaFree, G. (2010). Perspectives on Terrorism, the Global Terrorism Database Accomplishments and Challenges. Journal of the Terrorism Research Initiative. Vol. IV, Issue 1. Enhancing Security through Collaborative Research. Review available at  HYPERLINK httpwww.terrorismanalysts.comptindex.phpoptioncom_rokzineviewarticleid105Itemid54 httpwww.terrorismanalysts.comptindex.phpoptioncom_rokzineviewarticleid105Itemid54

The article provides updated Global Terrorism Database which provides information on international terrorist attacks. Global terrorism perspectives are discussed.

Lutz, M. J. and Lutz, J. B.  (2008). Global Terrorism. Terrorism in the World Today and Yesterday 2nd Edition. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data.

The book discusses terrorism in the past and in present. Terrorism is classified into categories, causes and prevalence of terrorism in a given nation are evaluated by the authors. Insight details about the sponsor and supporters of terrorism are further discussed. The review of terrorism tactics, weapons, trends and targets are documented in the book. This book is very useful to researchers who are interested in knowing the history of terrorism since its inception to the current state.

Narasimha, R. (2007). Science and Technology to Counter Terrorism The proceeding of an INDO-U.S Workshop. National Academy of Sciences, The National Academies Press. National Strategic and Security Studies Programme, National Institute of Advanced Studies.

Narasimha wrote on   the search of strategic solutions of combating terrorism by use of science and technology. This book focuses on terrorists threat in India and in Unite State of America. Author further suggested the information and communication technology security as a policy used to counter terrorists attack in both states.  The book is very useful in finding the strategic measures of science and technology that can be used to combat terrorism threats.

Nelson, O. R. and Bodurian, B. (2010). A Growing Terrorist Threat Assessing Homegrown Extremism in the United States.  A Report of the CSIS Homeland Security and Counterterrorism Program. Center for Strategic and International Studies.

The Center for Strategic and International Studies provided strategic insights and practical solutions by finding ways of America to survive and prosper as a nation. The article discusses five events during the fall of 2009 terrorist attacks perpetrated by U.S.A legal residents and citizens. The events are

Najibullah Zazi who is an Afghan citizen and U.S. legal resident, got arrested and charged for conspiracy to use deadly weapons for mass destruction in September 19.

In October 27, U.S. citizen David Coleman Headley was charged by federal authorities for planning to attack the Danish newspaper.

Major Nidal Malik Hasan an U.S. Army allegedly killed 13 and wounded 30 at Fort Hood Army Base, outside Killeen, Texas in November 5.

In November 23, federal officials opened accusation against eight people who were charged to have connection with alleged recruitment   Somali Americans to fight with insurgent group in Somalia.
In December 9, five young men from Northern Virginia got arrested in Sargodha, Pakistan. U.S. and Pakistani authorities with claim that group had intention of fight alongside Taliban militants in Afghanistan.

Neumann, R. P. (2009). Old and New Terrorism Social Europe Journal Vol. 4 Issue 3 No. 2
Review available at  HYPERLINK httpwww.social-europe.eu200908old-and-new-terrorism httpwww.social-europe.eu200908old-and-new-terrorism

The features of terrorism are revolutionized with change in technology, since there are new forms of terrorism.  The journal explains the new invention of terrorism attacks which are more dangerous compared to past techniques.

Perl, F. R. (2007). International TerrorismThreat, Policy, and Response. Congress Research services Report for Congress. Specialist in International Affairs Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
The Perls article consists of four major components namely war on terrorism, threat of terrorism, trend of terrorism and policy responses.

The war on terrorism is focused on priority of combating Al Qaeda by use of military force.  Terrorism poses threat to domestic peace and security of nation. The modern trend of terrorism is displayed by organized group, self- financed and global network of terrorists. Religions are used in pretext of friendliness, military training, technology, funds and political power. The range of policy measures that have been established to combat terrorism include diplomacy, international cooperation, constructive engagement, protective security measures, economic sanctions, covert action and military force.

Schmid, P. A. and Jongman, J. A. (1987). Political Terrorism A New Guide to Actors, Authors, Concepts, Databases, Theories and Literature. Expanded and Updated Edition Prepared Under the Auspices of the Center for International Affairs, Harvard University.

Schmid and Jongman discuss terrorism and its concept with elaborate information on theories, databases and organizations of terrorism. It is evident that the book is a significant tool for political scientist they use the book to understand the nations political structure by analyzing political terrorist attacks. The authors work provides significant literature for researchers who are interested in terrorism research. Well defined and documented bibliographies are included in the book.

Shelley, L. (2006) Threat Convergence New Pathways to proliferation Expert Series Growing Together Ideological and Operational Linkages between Terrorist and Criminal Networks School of International Service, Terrorism, Transnational Crime and Corruption Center American University, Washington, D.C.

Shelley books suggest that terrorists and criminals operation are quite similar, criminals work hand in hand with terrorists. Criminals and terrorist interact through the new criminal networks.

Sturcke, J. (2009). Explainer Real IRA and Continuity IRA. Dissident republican groups that both split from the Provisional IRA. Review available at  HYPERLINK httpwww.guardian.co.ukuk2009mar10real-ira-continuity httpwww.guardian.co.ukuk2009mar10real-ira-continuity
Both the Real IRA and Continuity IRA are descendants of  republican groups that split from the Provisional IRA.

Terrorism Research Center (1996). Mirror Image Training to Combat Terrorism.
Review available at HYPERLINK httpwww.terrorism.com httpwww.terrorism.com
The agency is an independent institute which is dedicated on research of terrorism, information on warfare and security, critical infrastructure protection, homeland security and other issues concerned with   political violence and defense.The agency provides reliable training and cutting edge solutions to real world problems of terrorism attacks. The Mirror Image Classes have been featured and deployed in Afghanistan where proportion of terrorism attacks is very high. The article is very useful for security officials who are interested in getting information about the terrorism. Training is relevant for defense and security systems in getting the skills required to combat terrorism.
Thornton, D. (2010). Real IRA assassinate drug informant Ciaran Doherty. Review available at  HYPERLINK httpwww.irishcentral.comnewsReal-IRA-assassinate-drug-informant-Ciaran-Doherty-85471267.html httpwww.irishcentral.comnewsReal-IRA-assassinate-drug-informant-Ciaran-Doherty-85471267.html

RIRA claimed the responsibility of Doherty murder after suspecting that Doherty were responsible for giving police the information about the information Cannabis factory in Donegal County.

It is difficult for me to comprehend why an individual would want to commit a crime after seeing a high number of members of the community being incarcerated. I would think the situation would be the other way around which, is most likely what the justice system within the community is thinking. It would make sense for crime rates to be higher with a lack of law enforcement and lower instances of criminals being incarcerated.

Several variables are in play in this situation, in order to identify the breaking point. Meaning, the point when so many criminals are incarcerated, the community is negatively impacted by others possibly rebellious behavior. Bernard, Snipes, and Gerould (2010) suggest this rebellion may be in response to the high rate of enforcement causing negative feelings toward the enforcers.

One critical variable is the economy within the neighborhood. In an area where there is a lack of education and employment, people may be committing crimes as a means for survival they may have a family to support. Incarcerating the family member who is putting the food on the table may force another member to commit crimes. Therefore, incarceration may only be replenishing the number of criminals.  

Although currently living in Jamaica, I am a retired Canadian who spent most of his adult life in Toronto, a city with a population of well over two million. I am not familiar with the Australian experience, but Torontos crime rate tends to be much lower than American cities of comparable size. For example the homicide rate is usually about 60 per year. However within Toronto there are definitely areas with a greater crime problem than others but they are not necessarily those closest to the center of the city. In this sense I would tend to agree with your stated observation about Sydney more than the hypotheses of Shaw that the most problem area are closer to the city center because this is the oldest part of the city and largely inhabited by poor immigrants and therefore more prone to social disorganization. Just before emigrating I worked as a security guard in a middle class condo near the city center. The immediate area was rundown and afflicted by crime

Ranging from bike thefts and vandalism to drug dealing. However just  a few blocks away many old houses have been  bought up and refurbished  and this is now a fairly affluent, trendy area called Cabbagetown were crime rates have significantly decreased. On the other hand in northwest Toronto far from the city center there is a relatively poor, largely immigrant populated area called the Jane-Finch corridor where crime rates are high compared to the city average. Therefore in summary while I would agree that poor and often immigrant populated districts tend to suffer from higher crime rates, based on my experience in Toronto these are not necessarily geographically situated near the city core.

Facial recognition technology refers to a computer driven application that automatically identifies an individual from his or her digital image by a comparison of particular facial features in a facial database and in a live image (Vacca, 2007, 95).  The technology creates a template of peoples facial configurations, such as the lengths of their noses and the angles of their jaws.  It thereby functions like other biometric technologies (e.g. iris scanning) that use biological features for the purpose of recognition (Kautzer, 2002).  According to Visionics, a manufacturer of face recognition software, the technology is capable of finding human faces anywhere in the field of view and at any distance, and it can continuously track them and crop them out of the scene, matching the face against a watch list (Kautzer).  As an example of its application, facial recognition software is nowadays used for entrance management.  Systems are being designed to automatically open doors to allow only those individuals whose facial features are recognizable because they have been fed into those systems (Face Recognition Entrance Control System, 2009).  Undoubtedly, this application of face recognition software could secure both public and private buildings from criminals, including suicide bombers  the scare of the time.
   
But, is there more to face recognition technology than meets the eye  In other words, is it reasonable to rely on face recognition technology for entrance control apart from other applications related to security  Through this research paper, we would deepen our understanding of this technology so as to discover how the future of our criminal justice system can be positively impacted by it and our world made safer.  

Description and Uses of Facial Recognition Technology
It is natural brain technology that allows humans to recognize fellow human beings.  According to Bruce  Young (1986), there are face recognition units in the brains of human beings (361).  Face recognition involves matching the products of structural encoding, that is, facial features that are spotted by the eye with previously stored structural codes (Bruce  Young, 361).  Vacca writes that there are three areas of the face that are primary targets in face recognition because they do not typically change (95).  These parts of the face include upper sections of a persons eye sockets, the part of the face surrounding ones cheekbones, and the sides of the human mouth.  Regardless of whether the brain also considers these parts of the face most crucial to facial recognition, Vacca explains three different techniques used in man-made face recognition technology, namely, eigenface systems, eigenfeature systems, and thermal imaging.  Eigenface image systems capture facial images and change them to light and dark areas (Vacca, 95).  In eigenfeature systems, certain features of the face, for example, the eyes and the mouth, are picked out and distances are measured between these features.  Thermal imaging systems, on the other hand, take thermal images of the human face, focusing on the pattern of blood vessels (Vacca).
   
Seeing the problems with facial recognition in criminal trials, where eyewitnesses are given the responsibilities of facial recognition software, it easy to understand why complicated technological systems for face recognition are indispensable for the criminal justice system (Jong, Wagenaar, Wolters  Verstijnen, 2005, 87-88).  In fact, eyewitness identification depends on so many factors that even the United States Supreme Court has expressed doubts about its use in criminal trials, especially when eyewitnesses are shown photographs of the accused (Pezdek  Blandon-Gitlin, 2005, 247).  Biometric technologies, on the other hand, promise an accuracy rate of at least ninety-five percent (Hopkins, 1999).  Unsurprisingly, therefore, use of facial recognition software is widespread today (Bharvada, 2002, 270).
   
Even though iris scanning and other kinds of biometric technologies are known to be far more accurate than face recognition technology, the latter is more widely accepted because it is least intrusive.  This technology does not require users to push, click, or insert anything into the system, despite the fact that it takes many experts to create eigenface, eigenfeature or thermal imaging systems.  Moreover, organizations using the face recognition technology do not require the installation of anything except a new software application.  The cameras already in place as well as pictures of individuals on file are enough for organizations that use this technology.  Hence, face recognition technology is cheaper than iris scanning, for instance, which requires reading setups (Rutherford, 2001).  According to Frances Zelazney, who works as the director of corporate communication at Visionics, yet another advantage of facial recognition technology as compared to other biometric technologies is that facial recognition provides for inherent human backup because we naturally recognize one another  If the system goes down, someone can pull out an ID with a picture as backup, something you cant do with fingerprint devices (Rutherford).
   
Hence, facial recognition technology is known as the fastest growing biometric technology in our day.  Law enforcement agencies and the military have been successfully using the technology for many years without the public being aware of it.  As an example, in the year 1988 the Los Angeles County Sheriffs Department, Lakewood Division, began using composite sketches of suspects as well as video images in order to conduct searches on a database of digital facial shots.  The department also has a photo database of sex offenders and plans to find suspects on this database.  Then there is the Gang Reporting Evaluation Tracking system that can be searched with the use of photos of suspects in order for law enforcement to circumvent false identification cards as well as information that has been presented by gang members.  Other applications of face recognition technology in the area of criminal investigation include the Integrated Law Enforcement Face-Identification System which incorporates a unique three dimensional composite technology to identify angled-view face shots more easily.  The system is meant to be very helpful in the correct identification of uncooperative suspects in addition to subjects that have been caught from a distance using video surveillance cameras (Jarvis).
   
Britain is known to use at least two hundred thousand video cameras for surveillance.  Many of these cameras are being installed with facial recognition technology today.  Typically these systems use computers to monitor cameras that are looking for recognized criminals.  As soon as the system is seen to identify a known criminal, the police are called.  Numerous United States embassies around the world are also using face recognition systems to keep criminals from entering the country.  The Israel-Palestine border control is similarly using the technology to reduce crime (Jarvis).
   
Given the importance of putting a name to a face in law enforcement, whether it is to solve crimes, protect the public, or to ensure security in jails, face recognition software is proving itself to be of tremendous value.  Sheriff Everett Rice with the Pinellas County Sheriffs Office in Florida employs the technology to positively identify and verify individuals (Case Study Pinellas County Sheriffs Office Improves Law Enforcement).  Some of these individuals have been recently arrested while others are about to be released (Case Study Pinellas County Sheriffs Office Improves Law Enforcement).  So far, application of the technology has been successful, leading to hundreds of positive identifications of criminals (Case Study Pinellas County Sheriffs Office Improves Law Enforcement).  The Pinellas County Sheriffs Office has applied the new technology in other ways as well.  As an example, the Sheriffs Office has expanded use of face recognition systems to its patrol cars, allowing street deputies to identify those individuals that have been stopped and are unable to produce identification.  Although there is no estimate for how many criminals the law enforcement agency would catch through this system, users of the system are confident that face recognition software would have a greater impact on crime control in the years to come.  In fact, application of face recognition technology by the Pinellas County Sheriffs Office is a model for other agencies involved in criminal investigation (Case Study Pinellas County Sheriffs Office Improves Law Enforcement).  

Problems with Face Recognition Software
The United States Department of Defense, with its focus on perfecting face recognition technology to spot criminals on the borders of the nation, had been funding scientific studies on face recognition technology for more than a decade.  Private companies were similarly convinced that this technology could dramatically help in combating crime within the borders of the United States.  Because of their belief, marketing of facial recognition technology became widespread during the mid-1990s (Rutherford).
   
Then came 911  the day that changed the security concerns of the entire world in the matter of a few hours.  There was increased interest in face recognition systems following the terrorist attacks on American soil.  Although Americans had viewed face recognition technology with skepticism before the attacks, they became confident that pervasive use of the new technology in security as well as public safety would protect them from similar attacks in future.  Indeed, face recognition technology could play an important role in the prevention of tragedies.  All the same, law enforcement agencies have discovered that in areas covered by the new technology, no terrorist has ever been identified.

What is more, despite the redoubling of efforts to create dependable face recognition systems after 911, the new technology suffers from problems.  Facial recognition technology faces a difficulty, for example, in the recognition of the effects of aging.  Digitally compared photos of individuals that had been taken eighteen months apart produced untrue rejections by the software application at least forty three percent of the time.  Furthermore, it has been found that the technology is more successful when used by casinos to identify cheaters, in welfare offices, and by drivers license bureaus, given the uniformity of lighting and use of the same cameras in these places (Jarvis OHarrow, 2001).
   
Whether or not face recognition technology could drastically help in the areas of security and public safety is yet to be discovered.  Still, successful application of the new technology in the Pinellas County gives us an idea about the extent to which face recognition systems may enhance public safety management.  Perhaps, if all law enforcement agencies around the country were to employ face recognition technology, we would be able to confirm that the new technology may, indeed, work wonders for public safety.  Thus far, this is only an inference, seeing as common use of face recognition technology is not yet in vogue.
   
It may also be inferred that extensive use of the new technology around the world could save nations from the acts of terrorists.  Although face recognition technology is not as foolproof as public safety officials would like, it is an evolving technology incorporating new methods and systems of identifying the innocent as well as criminals.  In October 2001, the United States Senate subcommittee started to look into the potential uses of face recognition monitors in fighting terrorism (Rohde, 2001).  In point of fact, the government and the public at large have already understood that face recognition software may be very useful for security and public safety.  In the wake of the attacks on American soil, Viisage was requested to participate in a program at the Logan Airport to evaluate the potential of the new technology as a screening application for employees (QA with Viisage CEO Bernard Bailey).  The National Institute of Standards and Technology  playing a significant role in the enhancement of United States homeland security with projects that span a wide range of study areas and by helping the military, law enforcement, building and airport security besides other entities  has also developed a team of face recognition experts that work with federal agencies to improve computer applications with face recognition.  It has been reported that error rates in face recognition technology worked on by the National Institute of Standards and Technology dropped by almost fifty percent between the years 2000 and 2002 (Technologies for Public Safety and Security, 2007).
   
But, if technological experts are eventually able to address all problems related to face recognition software at present, it would still take training to perfect use of this technology.  Consider the case of Rob Milliron, a construction worker, who was enjoying his lunch in an entertainment area of Tampa, Florida, when a government camera equipped with face recognition technology took his photograph.  The photo was used without Millirons consent in an article published in the U.S. News  World Report.  When a woman in Oklahoma misidentified Milliron after seeing that photo and contacted the police department to have him arrested on child neglect charges, the man in the picture was forced to explain his innocence to law enforcement agencies (Alexander  Richert-Boe).  He told a newspaper once his explanation had been accepted They made me feel like a criminal (Alexander  Richert-Boe).
Conclusion
Although Millirons case raises ethical concerns regarding governmental use of facial recognition surveillance, it shows direction to both potential and existing users of this system in the effort to perfect its use.  After all, face recognition technology is essential to law and order in our day.  Richard Chace of the Security Industry Association stated upon seeing videotaped footage of a terrorist walking in the Logan Airport that if the security cameras had been equipped with the latest in face recognition technology, it would have been easy to prevent a hijacking (The Today Show, 2001).

However, Howard Simon, executive director of the Florida American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), said that face recognition software might lead to racial profiling (ACLU Probes Police Use of Facial-Recognition Surveillance Cameras in Florida City, 2001).  However, there is no evidence that racial profiling has occurred due to the new technology.  Instead, there is widespread belief that face recognition systems would be of tremendous help in the security of the nation.
   
Indeed, face recognition technology is expected to go a long way in helping the nation and the world at large.  So therefore, improvements in the face recognition technology are awaited in order to put the new technology to better use than before.  Thus far, extensive use of the new technology has been impeded by scientific errors, for example, the fact that face recognition technology may not easily detect the effects of aging.  With new scientific research, however, such errors may be reduced and eventually done away with.  Pinellas County is already appreciative of face recognition technology.  Other law enforcement departments around the United States and around the globe may similarly find that it is better to put the technology to good use despite scientific errors than to avoid it altogether.  What is more, it must be remembered that there is no technology in the world that may be foolproof at all times.  Even law enforcement officers are error-prone.
   
It is for this reason that Garcia (2006) mentions the necessity of complementing facial recognition software with tamper detection sensors, line security supervision, door monitor switches, authorization verification checking, personal identification number checking, personal identity verification, personnel tracking, and two-door portals when this technology is used for entrance control (161).  As we have discovered through this discussion, face recognition software is not adequate on its own for entrance management because scientists have not been able to make it foolproof thus far.  Thus, organizations that purchase the Face Recognition Entrance Control System designed by FIRS Intelligent Technology (Shenzhen) Co. Ltd. or the likes of it must consider complementing the technology with other security check systems.  The Face Recognition Entrance Control System designed by FIRS Intelligent Technology sends a command for the door to open as soon as an individuals facial features are recognized (Face Recognition Entrance Control System).

But, this technology may or may not ensure security.  Then again, it depends on the security needs of the premises where face recognition software is installed for entry management.  Clearly, facial recognition technology would not ensure safety for all organizations that install it.  The fact remains, however, that it is better to use and perfect the use of this technology than to discard it altogether.