Criminology

The United States spends huge amounts of money on incarceration programs every year, and according to national statistics, the number of offenders who are re-incarcerated for violating their parole is even more alarming, as it has increased more than sevenfold in the last two decades. (Travis, Jeremy and Sarah Lawrence. 2002. Beyond The Prison Gates The State Of Parole In America. Washington, D.C. The Urban Institute.)  The state of Pennsylvania is no exception to this disturbing trend experienced by judicial systems across the country.  The state has seen an increase in the admission of parole violators in the last six years meaning a third of the Pennsylvania departments total admissions of prisoners are for parole violators.

In response to the troubling inclination of inmates on parole to be re-incarcerated, the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections conducted a needs assessment of parole violators with the main objective of examining what happens in their lives outside the prison walls, as an indicator of what causes them to violate the terms of their parole.  The assessment was based on an investigation centered on the dynamic psychological experience of recidivism. The assessment was then used as a tool to interpret the self-reported experiences of parole violators involved in the study. The Pennsylvania Department of Corrections divided the surveyed groups of nearly 600 into two - technical parole violators and convicted parole violators - over a two month period. Questions asked during the survey ranged from living arrangements, financial situation, alcohol and drug use, leisure activities, and community supervision experiences of the violators. At the end of the study, the Department had collected a total of 542 completed surveys which were then analyzed based on recurring data themes.

What the Department found was a similarity between technical parole violators and convicted parole violators, even though the two populations are known to represent two very different kinds of parole groups, each with different needs. The factors which influenced their lives while on parole were noted to strongly affect the decisions they made  factors such as their level of social contact, their economic and employment status and experiences, their involvement in the use of drugs and alcohol, and their general thoughts and emotions.

The study found that the level of social acceptance and accommodation was a huge influence on how individuals performed while on parole. A majority of the violators said they had a solid support system when it came to family and social relationships.

The study also revealed a finding of encouraging legal employment patterns. While most said it was not difficult to find work, it was the types of available jobs that was most discouraging. Not a huge surprise given the fact that most high paying jobs are more careful in their hiring criteria and requirements.

Among other heavy issues of concern were poor financial management skills, strong anti-social attitudes towards convicts, and general poor coping skills of convicts. All these factors when taken into consideration showed that most parole violators seem not very well prepared for life outside incarceration hence the high tendency of their return. Although the outcome with regards to family acceptance was encouraging, it could also be cause for concern in situations where family and friends are also involved in criminal activity and therefore have the ability to be of negative influence on individuals on parole. (Zamble, Edward and V. L. Quinsey. 1997. The Criminal Recidivism Process. United Kingdom Cambridge University Press.)

To reverse the negative trend of parole violations, programs need to be implemented that focus mainly on cognitive behavioral treatment to include coping strategies, self-management enforcement and relapse prevention methods based solely on individual needs. Other technical skills such as financial management should be seriously considered in an effort to keep financial frustrations to a minimum. This is of great importance because money management is an important determinant of self-interest the implications of its success in the life of a parole violator cannot be overlooked. Individuals should also be taught the value of accepting their reality. Having realistic expectations of external attitudes towards individuals on parole will help individuals on parole to have a realistic way of viewing situations, then coping with social judgmental attitudes towards them. Programs focused on reinforcing pro-social behavioral reactions to negative emotional experiences should also strongly be implemented. This should be based on the assumption that violators are bound to experience unlikable emotional experiences at some point in their lives. Drug and alcohol rehabilitation programs should be implemented inside the prisons as part of a pre-release program structured to equip individuals with general positive outlooks on the life situations. Most of all, individuals, prior to their release on parole, should be informed of the obstacles they are bound to face in terms of job searches, job satisfaction, money matters and general life outside prison. They must be prepared to face these challenges head on and with a positive and realistic outlook.

The Pennsylvania Department of Corrections has since designed a pilot program for parole violators aimed at addressing each of the major policy implications identified in the study. A thorough assessment of individual needs will be used to tailor individual treatment plans and place parole violators in issue-specific treatment groups according to their assessed needs.  This model is expected to better prepare parole violators for re-release and will hopefully serve to reduce future parole violator admissions to Pennsylvanias prisons. (Champion, Dean John, 2007. Crime Prevention in America, New Jersey Prentice Hall Publishing.)

Communication can be defined as the process of sharing ideas, feelings and thoughts with others and having the ideas, thoughts and feelings be understood by them. It is an active process which involves speaking, listening and observation. Effective communication will always encompass the sharing of meaning and ardent understanding between the sender and the receiver of the message (Lordan, 2006). Communication process is made up of various components, which are factors that affect the effectiveness of the entire process of message transmission.  Communication always comprises of four components sender, message, receiver and the feedback (Lordan, 2006). The sender is the communicator sending the message and communication process is affected by the senders attitudes and meaningful symbols. Message is the second component, which can be a communication done in speech, writing or signals. The third component is the receiver. Receiver gets the message and makes sense out of it, understanding and translating the message into a meaningful element. The process of communication is cyclic, meaning that the receiver, after interpreting the message, he will have to respond and pass a new message. The receiver in this second scenario becomes the sender.  The response from the receiver is the fourth component of communication, which is the feedback.

Feedbacks can be verbal or even nonverbal.Differences between listening and hearing in communication
In any model of communication, there is a distinct manner in which the message is transmitted and it always involves the sender and the receiver. At the sender end, is the origin of the message and at the receiver end is the destiny of the message (Weiner, 2008). The message will only be understood and be served with the correct response only when it has been understood. Understanding is therefore an imperative element in communication. Listening will always be necessary for understanding the message (Weiner, 2008). It is an active process in any conversation. In hearing process, the sound waves only hit the ears cochlea that translates the sound perceived into various nerve impulses which the brain can process as per the language skills. It requires an individual to have more concentration while listening than hearing. It needs the brain to be engaged in the process of listening. If active brain engagement is not met, the sound that hits the cochlea will make no sense. The formal and informal channels of communication in criminal justice organizations

In a criminal justice organization, there are two types of communication channels that are widely employed the formal and the informal channels of communication. Formal channels consist of information flowing along the official lines of the criminal justice organization authorities. The formal channel usually involves the upward channel, the downward channel and the lateral channels (Temple, 2002). Within a criminal justice organization, a downward channel will always follow a specified chain of command usually from the top to the bottom. Upward communication is utilized in passing information from the subordinate to the superiors while lateral communication channels may involve the individuals from different departments in the court system meeting and discussing issues. This can be a court clerk manager and the courts IT manager communications. Informal communication involves two or more court employees who meet to discuss about their work place and what working in the court system encompasses. Unlike the formal communication channel, which has to be organized in terms of meeting room, the informal communication can take place in cafeterias, cubicles or in golf game (Temple, 2002). The channels can be through e-mail, phones, instant messaging or face to face communication.

Different barriers to effective communication
There are various barriers to effective communication. These barriers prevent the effective understanding of other peoples thoughts and ideas and usually occur at any section of communication loop consisting of components. It may occur in the message part, in the channel used for communication or in the feedback section (Weiner, 2008). Barriers are divided into internal and external. Internal barriers include poor skills in listening, fatigue, lack of interest, attitudes towards the communicator, mistrust, fear, past experience and so forth (Weiner, 2008). External barriers comprise of noise distraction, poor phone connections, problem with e-mail services, time of the day and the environment (Weiner, 2008).Strategies that may be implemented to overcome communication barriers
It is necessary that the barriers to effective communication are at all levels prevented and avoided as they cause the message not to be received in an effective way thus affecting the response. While making any form of communication, it is important for the communicator and the receiver to watch out for the possible barriers of commutation.  The actions of the receiver should carefully be monitored to ensure that the message is passed in the appropriate way the receiver most prefers. Checking the body language of the receiver can be important when communication is done face-to-face. The communicator or the sender of the message can check to ascertain that the message received by the receiver is the one that was sent. Finally, it is important to listen and ask questions (Weiner, 2008). These are the ingredients of effective communication.

Campbell is reasonable when she states that small and open groups formed by girls are less likely to engage in criminal gang behavior.  Girls in such groups may be more interested in developing bonds with other group members, as they share their intimate secrets with them, thereby strengthening their emotional attachments with one another.  However, it cannot be surmised how long such bonds may last.  After all, girls who do not believe in achieving goals that society expects them to achieve  such as the retreatists in Mertons theory  are not expected to meet societal expectations in any way.  These expectations include development of healthy, lasting bonds.  Moreover, groups tend to establish norms, even if they are deviant retreatist girls are expected to flee all norms sooner or later. 
   
It is further possible that small, open groups of girls would eventually start discussing how to become good, as openness tends to accompany honesty.  All those who do not agree with the idea of turning good are expected to leave their groups at that point.  Through Cohens theoretical framework, it is understandable that bad girls cannot turn good for the reason that they do not perceive themselves as capable of or good enough to achieve positive, long term goals.  Organizational behavior theorists discuss self-efficacy as an essential component of high achievement.  This component of achievement is useful in the comprehension of bad girls who do not engage in criminal behavior even if they have opted to completely disregard societal expectations. 

Repeat victimization refers to situations or people that are prone to physical or criminal attacks by assailants. This occurs due to the vulnerability of the victims or the ease with which certain situations present ample opportunity for a crime to take place. Dark alleys and isolated streets are   dangerous places to venture into at night because of the likelihood of getting mugged or raped. Similarly, withdrawing money from ATMs located on streets with low traffic creates an opportunity for criminals to strike.

Vulnerable people like the aged and very young are at risk from assailants, kidnappers and rapists. They suffer from repeat victimization since criminals view them as easy targets. As a result, extra security measures need to be instituted to protect them from attacks.  Some of the problems associated with preventing repeat victimization are that the victims do not take their security very seriously. They expose themselves to risky situations or carry expensive items in crime prone areas. This increases the incidence of victimization, traumatizes the person and creates a fear of venturing outdoors. 
By identifying situations and persons that are most likely to be attacked, law enforcement and security agents can set up surveillance points to arrest such offenders. Another measure the police can implement is to issue public broadcasts asking citizens to avoid venturing into crime prone areas. Community policing programs, travel advisories, street lighting and increased patrol will ensure previous hot spots become safe again.

In both the research studies written by Trickett and Tricket (1982) and the article written by Lung (2006), ample evidence shows that school achievement of students enrolled in single-sex schools are higher compared to students in coed schools. While the findings of the articles focus mainly on the educational setting, a portion of the arguments is deemed relevant for the purpose of addressing crime and delinquency. In general, the segregation of boys and girls in the school allows for a better approach to delinquency among the students. 

The setting allows for convenience in identifying the variables that lead to bonding and delinquency among the students. Delinquent behaviors are generally taken to be different for both the male and female students because of a set of underlying factors related to their gender. With the setting that the single-sex schools provide, the school administration and other concerned stakeholders can easily address delinquent behaviors by implementing gender-specific approaches. In addition to this, the increase in educational achievement signals that there is a greater tendency for the students in single-sex schools to concentrate more on academics than on delinquent behavior. 

For a very long time now, there has been raging debate and ceaseless controversy regarding the application of various systems of criminal justice in the country owing to their perceived success rating. Many have decried the manner in which Methods like parole have been applied, and the consequences they have had not only on the prisoners themselves but also on the general public. The main bone of contention has been the manner in which prisoners have kept being released only to commit the same crime again and get back to prison  commit recidivism. As such, not only the methods used to punish the convicted prisoners have been under increased criticism for the increased cases of recidivism but also the conditions in prisons (Wanberg, 2006). This research proposal aims at seeking to establish the relationship there is between recidivism and prison conditions and so, based on its findings, help further research into the area with the aim of easing the problem. It specifically aims to address the issue of recidivism, and how it has been tied to jail conditions as opposed to any other causes like parole.

Background to the Problem - Recidivism and Prison Conditions
The aim of having criminals in jail is generally to keep them away from the society for some amount of time in order to facilitate their behavior change as well as to ensure security for other members of society. When the inmates are released, some of them revert back to criminal activities, creating a real problem in society. Recidivism is essentially the reversion of a person to criminal behavior after heshe has been through jail and rehabilitation. There is always a huge divide between those who argue on the need for increased in jail terms to maintain security and those who are against longer sentences arguing that longer sentences may not reduce recidivism after all (Wanberg, 2006). Therefore, the issue of what causes this reversion to crime after a person has been through jail life is of importance in determining the proper measures to be taken in increasing security and ensuring that the jail system does not undergo a heavy investment in keeping inmates for longer periods in vain.

Importance of the Research
A decision is required with support from some source different from these arguments by providing some solid facts about the prison environment with their relation to the behavior of the convicted person after leaving jail. Perhaps it is important to realize that recidivism is one of the contributors to changes in crime levels but is not the only parameter demographic changes, unemployment rates, immigration, among others, can affect crime rates too. The reason why recidivism is an important area of study is because it connects the what really happens in the process of rehabilitation in jails to the outcome, and therefore can be used to show whether jail efforts are fruitful or not. If the levels of recidivism are on the increase, then the system used in jails is a failure.

In some cases, though, it has been found that the exceedingly good state of prisons has encouraged prisoners to seek to get back in there. With the clamor for better prison conditions and the subsequent response by the government to improve conditions has meant that prisoners, rather than having prison as a place they would loathe and least desire to be, have actually preferred prison to freedom owing to their perceived better living standards there. While this is an altogether new and rare trend in the developed nations, it is very common in the developing nations where the majority of the people are poor and so some people would rather commit crimes that would get them longer prison sentences than be free yet starve to death (Zamble, 2001).

It is important to notice that the jail system is meant to take away the interest of a person in criminal activities but when the life inside jail becomes too harsh, it could form a training field where inmates learn to survive and hence get convinced that crime life is a tolerable form of living. In a for there to be an effective system for reforming jails, the importance of properly equipping prisoners with skills so that when they get out of jail they can fit in the society is underscored. There is also a need for the prisoners to be helped and supported through psychological and psychiatric professional counseling. If the solutions proposed by the many legal, psychological, and psychiatric professionals were to be applicable, then many things could surely change. For instance, the prisoners could have hope for a good life and skills to help them earn a living.

On the other hand, good conditions in jail are not part of punishment and this violates the capital principle behind the need for jails. If there are not enough punishments, then the culprits could not see the need to avoid crime in their life. The way the society views the use of jail as a measure to get rid of those that do not fit in the society leaves a big question on proposing good conditions for inmates from the inside of prison. Recidivism can be seen as the failure of an individual to live up to the societys expectation or, on another platform, as the failure of society to provide for the individual (Zamble, 2001). The focus point could either be the persons behavior or the environment in which that behavior is exhibited, in an effort to realize any source or course.

While looking at the situation closely - by examining jail conditions - one could reveal the extent to which the environment is contributing towards recidivism. Remembering that the key idea is a measure of failure rather than success of the system, criticism is encouraged. In the current situation, the assumption in dealing with recidivism is that the offenders are wrong, have a problem and need to be corrected. The assumption is also inclusive of the fact that there are officials and attendants in the jail system, capable of making these corrections. Considering the increase of rehabilitated and released individuals tendency of reversion to crime, the system must then have problems from within.

Literature review
For a long time, the state of prisons in this country has been the subject of widespread discussion, with human rights groups particularly seeking to have the federal government and the states intervening in the matter and doing more to ensure that prisoners get a chance to have a bearable life. This is especially so because, according to the countrys criminal justice system, prison is not supposed to be only a place of punishment but also  and more importantly so  a place for prisoners convicted of different offenses to be helped to reform and get reintegrated into the society (Baldry, 2008). Therefore, it is upon the law enforcement agencies, the government, and the various courts jurisdictions in the country to ensure that they work together with community systems to give convicts a chance to be punished but also to quickly get reintegrated into the community by using methods that do not emphasize prison terms served to the very completion.
 
This is particularly because prisons have in the recent past become like torture places where inmates are exposed to punishments that sometimes are extra-judicial. Therefore, the prisons are not any more the ideal places for helping prisoners because they tend to encourage inmates to remain opposed to law and order and so make them more inclined to commit crimes once they are released. The effect has been the exacerbation of the problem of recidivism which is already very high (Stohr, 2008).

According to Baldry (2008), the population in prisons has been on the increase, signifying an increase in level of crime in the society. Because of the increase in the number of prisoners without necessarily having immediate expansion, the resulting effect is deterioration of conditions in jail. It is, therefore, right to assume that since this effect does not happen in a systematically controlled manner at all places, two criminals jailed at different places could serve the same term but with different degrees of punishment (Zamble, 2001). This could determine their likelihood of engaging in future crimes differently. The larger population of jails is constituted of the prisoners that are serving short terms and this means that they will eventually be released. Consequently, it is important to understand how a former criminals life in jail could determine his future likelihood of committing a crime (Charles, 2010).

From a social policy point of view, it could be easier to change prison conditions rather than reviewing and adjusting terms of sentence in an effort to reduce the probability of a criminal going back to crime after release. Understanding that the conditions of jail directly affect the level of crime in the society is, therefore, important. Theoretically, there is evidence of both positive and negative effects of incarceration. On being separated from the society, a prisoner becomes weaker on issues of societal bonding and is more likely to commit crime (Baldry, 2008). On the other hand, increased punishment through imprisonment slowly reduces the tendency of an offender to repeat crime.

There have been earlier discussion on the effect of length of terms served and the conclusion has been that it has no effect to recidivism. The problem with dealing with time served in jail as a factor affecting recidivism is that there are other different factors affecting recidivism that goes along in jail life. For example, the type of crime committed where burglars and robbers are more likely to revert, age at release where older culprits have less likelihood to revert and criminal history where first time offenders are unlikely to revert. The investigation involving jail conditions requires the exclusion of the effects of time served (Wanberg, 2006). There are various ways used to avoid the effect of time including taking a study of the individual prisoners cases within a specified period of time and other statistical analysis tactics.

As far as Zamble (2001) is concerned, it is very difficult for any prisoner to actually confess that one will get back to a state of being socially well and sound enough to effectively take part in the process of community development. Writing in the book The criminal recidivism process, the author advocates for more targeted measures to address the problem of inmates failing to fully get reintegrated into the community. That the approach to reintegration rather than the actual prison conditions, argues Zamble, is what constitutes the most cases of recidivism. The author, based on these assertions, is of the opinion that a lot more has to be done by law enforcers between the time the prisoner is set to be released from prison and the time one actually is released or finishes serving ones prison term. This means that there has to be a lot of preparation for the inmate before the time set for actual release comes. This will help prepare the inmate for life in the community owing to the fact that most prisoners fail to cope well with new lifer in the community immediately after being released from prison. A number of preparatory approaches or methods ought to be used for this particular case, including parole and community policing. Parole is helpful in that it allows the inmate the opportunity to taste free life when actually the entire prison term has not been fully served. This is done when the inmate commits to obey certain preset conditions which are reached based on the inmates record while in prison, and after an assessment of possible behavior patterns of the inmate once back in the society. 

Past statistics have shown that in the past efforts have been primarily on prevention of recidivism rather than on its treatment. The findings also point out that the tendency of the offender to be against the law rather than hisher search for help and personal characteristics is always higher. In the past, various methods have been used to collect and analyze data based on the individuals records and there have been conclusions that do not relate to the exact conditions in jails. One research provided an analysis of prison conditions in the USA from 1950-90 with their effects to crime rates in the country. In this analysis, the argument is that poor prison conditions are a very effective measure of criminal behavior and the extent of correction because they affect all inmates regardless of the crime committed and the length of time served. It is explained that poor prison conditions may lead to more negative results in the inmates behavior like bitterness and anger to society rather than correction. It may lead to increase in violence in the prison and in turn inhibit the absorption of jail leavers back t the society.

HypothesisResearch Questions
It is always very important for any research to be conducted in a way that is most likely to produce results which are not only reliable but authentic and possibly empirical as well (Locke, Spirduso  Silverman, 2000). As such, there has to be clearly defined research questions and hypotheses for such a feat to be achieved. The subject of recidivism has been very controversial. No-one seems to have any real cause of it or the ways through which it can be best addressed. However, this research is founded on the possible close links there are between recidivism and the way prisoners are treated while in prisons. This includes the exact state of the prison, which either fail to meet the required standards or are too cozy to cause any discomfort to the inmates. To address the research effectively, therefore, the following hypotheses have been formulated

The more comfortable prisons are, the more the chances that prisoners will desire to live there longer and so the more the cases of recidivism.

In no less proportions, prisons that are poorly conditioned or those where coping for inmates is almost impossible are equally very likely to encourage recidivism because prisoners develop a mentality that they are being treated unlike human beings and so give up on ever having a life out of prison again.
Harsh and intolerable prison conditions are responsible for reduced cases of recidivism especially in the developed World.

Recidivism is largely a factor caused by prison conditions than by any other factor like release of prisoners on parole.

This research also had to narrow down its scope in order to address the aspects that are known to be critical to community needs. Therefore, the following research questions will be used to help keep the research focused and on the right course

Is the rate of crime in the society related to increase in jail population
This particular research question aims to specifically address the main aim of the research the relationship between prison conditions  prison density, freedoms of expressions, nature of services, treatment from prison officers, among other factors and recidivism. Increase in crime rates with increase in jail population means that there are more culprits reverting to crime after release because most of the convicts in jails serve short terms. If there are more inmates without jail expansion, then the conditions in jails become worse and this could be the cause of the chain reaction. The aim of the research will be to find out how deaths in jails, among other parameters, is related to the tendency of prisoners to commit recidivism as opposed to reduce it as many law enforcement officers tend to believe.

Do the conditions in jail pay a key part in determining the likelihood of an inmates committing the same crime for which one is serving the prison sentence or does it act as a deterrent to recidivism
This research question will entail giving factual correlations between jail terms and the mental states of the inmates. This is because the mentality of the inmates as opposed to their physical comfort has been thought to play a more pivotal role in determining the behavior of the inmate once out of prison.

The Research Design
The quality of data collected for any research will greatly influence the outcome of the research. The research design, therefore, has a direct bearing on the results and so the conclusions made from the research. Because of the nature of the research questions, it will be proper for the research to employ the use of both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection. The variables involved differ in scope and range and so the selected methods have to have this aspect considered. The analysis of the effects of prison conditions on the prisoners recidivism will be performed by means of data obtained from different sources. First will be a survey research where a group of former inmates will be responding to specifically designed set of questions (Marshall  Rossman, 2006). The survey can be conducted through either phone, mail or in person where possible.

The second method will be through the analysis of data from a prison database where the records will be screened for reoccurrence of prisoners in the prison and if the prisoner committed any crime from the time of release to a specific date. By comparing the data captured from the surveys and from existing records, there can be some measure of consistency and some amount of generalization established from the group of subjects that will be involved in the survey. This is essentially a secondary method of gathering information. These past records are usually taken every time an individual commits any crime and is reported to a correctional facility or to any relevant agency. As such, there will be a high chance of establishing the link between the number of offences or criminal acts committed in the past and the likelihood that the inmate will go ahead and commit yet another offence in the future. Committing offences by criminals is sometimes, as Wanberg (2006) argues in Criminal conduct and substance abuse treatment strategies for self-improvement and change pathways to responsible living the participants workbook, a habit which is deeply entrenched in the inmates behavioral patterns. Having these clearly defined records will therefore help in ensuring that the data collected will be authentic ad reliable and will help in drawing very informed ad reliable conclusions.
The variables to be measured from the collected data will be the number of deaths in the prison facility during an inmates stay, the population extent of overcrowding in the prison and the distance of separation between the prison where the subject served and the city of stay after release (Keith, 2006).

This will be in an effort to figure out whether a harsher condition can reduce the possibility of an inmate repeating a crime involvement. The reason as to why death rate will be used is because it is directly related to harsh conditions of poor spacing, competition for resources and poor health conditions. The correlation of these factors to death makes it a parameter enough for the measurement to be important. The distance from the prison to the city of association with social ties will be used to determine the extent of separation of the inmate with the social activities and support and hence the extent of isolation from his society in general. The data will be collected in forms filled for the details shown for each particular subject.

Recidivism refers to the tendency of criminals repeating criminal behaviors after the correctional approach has been used to deter individual from engaging in criminal activities (Aukerman 78). In more elaborate words, recidivism is equated to a situation where former prisoners are rearrested for the same crime even though they had been previously trained and corrected to fit into the society. From science point of view, recidivism refers to the frequency in which ex-prisoners are detected of committing additional crimes after being released from prison for similar crimes. Recently, recidivism has centered criminology debates due to such incidences skyrocketing daily.

According to Koch (2010), the rates of prisoners recidivism is on rise which puts pressure on state and federal budget for rehabilitation and correction departments. This situation is ironical in the sense that despite the enormous amounts of resources spent each year on rehabilitation and correction of offenders, recidivism rates grows each and every day with Koch (2010) estimating that recidivism incidences  accounting to 70 of total arrests and convictions made. Recidivism is commonly recorded in crimes related to sexual assaults, stealing property and aggression which make individual unable to learn from past mistakes.

Although there are many rehabilitation and correctional programs that are already in place, very few are successful in addressing immediate needs of reforming offenders to gain re-entry to community. Moreover, amongst these many excellent rehabilitation and reentry programs available, very few are genuinely focused on addressing the core and immediate needs of community reentry transition of ex-convicts individual from an offender tax consumer to an ex-offender a tax contributor (Aukerman 77-79).

Evidently, the high rate of recidivism of prisoners is a public concern which sets the agenda for this paper to attempt in evaluating genuine solutions to an American epidemic by reducing prisoner recidivism rates in states. In order to do this with precision, the paper shall evaluate and examine recidivism rate in United State, and the current policy used to correct offenders. These components are important because rehabilitations and correction measures used in prison facilities must focus on enhancing a reduction of recidivism incidences in society.

Causes of Prisoner Recidivism
The prison problems experienced in Colorado are directly linked to recidivism and overcrowding in prison facilities. Crimes committed by parolees not only burden the states overtaxed prison system, but it also creates new victims and compromises the security of public. Since the introduction of more aggressive policing, prosecution and sentencing of offenders in late 1970s, the number of prisoners in America had tremendously increased. In this way, the criminal Justice system played a major role in discouraging prisoners to better their lifestyle to gain reentry to the community (Bushway, Stoll, and Weiman 25).

Chen and Shapiro (2007, p.27), states that majority of ex-convicts are likely to land back to prisons due to unemployment in the sense that the society will pay the circumstances if job opportunities are not made available to ex-prisoners. On this issue, (Koch, 2010) recommends that substantial incentives should be put in place to make hiring of ex-convicts more appealing to potential employers to ensure that offenders do not land back to jail. Moreover, there is little evidence that link harsher confinement conditions having effect on recidivism reduction. However, the movement of a prisoner who was assigned minimum security to maximum security showed that the prisoner was most likely to get rearrested upon the release (Chen and Shapiro 27). 

The issue of prisoner over-representation in Colorado should not be overlooked in the criminal justice system. The causes of crimes are many and are varied to various circumstances. The causes are specifically, low standards of living, poor health and nutrition, poor housing structures, low levels of education and lack of employment opportunities, social and family dysfunction, cultural dislocation, dispossession, substance abuse, despair and high levels of mental illness (Koch 394) are all life circumstances that cause an individual to engage in criminal activities. Unless such massive and multifaceted issues are addressed and resolved, the over-representation of convicts within the criminal justice system of Colorado is likely to continue and the rate will keep on increasing. Agencies such as courts and corrective policies are unable to address these deep rooted issues of prisoner recidivism which have defied some solutions for many years up to date.

Solutions
In attempt to curb recidivism, the Council of State Governments established the politically bipartisan Reentry Policy Council. The policy includes key leaders in communities and state, local and federal governments, state lawmakers, criminal justice policymakers and practitioners. Additionally, this policy council includes workforce development and employment services officials, housing providers and housing system officials, representatives of health, mental health and substance abuse treatment systems, victim advocates, people who have been incarcerated and their families and ministers and others working in faith-based institutions. The aim of the policy is to realize and control prison costs which mean that levels of recidivism are controlled. These are achieved by helping newly ex-convicts establish acceptable lives once they are out of jail. Reentry policies   around the country have been similar or at least somewhat similar to the offender reentry to community policies in other countries (Coley and Barton 252).

In addition, both non-serious and non-violent female prisoners who were imprisoned in women California state prisons were moved to community correctional facilities prior to their release to change environment and avoid overcrowding. On the other hand, male inmates were housed in the new facilities to reduce overcrowding in male prison facilities. The new policy made the inmates housed in facilities that were near their children and families, they were also provided with gender-responsive counseling and services to improve their chances for successful re-entry into the society. The research by Aukerman (2003, p.79) revealed that these measures lowered recidivism rates, improved family reunion by allowing ex-convicts re-entry into the society, facilitated recovery from drug abuse and a significant stabilized women transition to life outside the prison. Thus, families are kept intact by having appropriate pre-incarceration planning and programmes (Aukerman 79).

Intervention for juvenile offenders is significant step in reduction of recidivism rate and the method proofs to be cost effective. The dissemination of intervention policy must win confidence of juvenile offenders and youths whose parents are not involved in the process of justice. Experimental studies are in support of skills-training intervention for reduction of recidivism among juvenile criminals (Blechman, Maurice, Buecker and Helberg 148). The proportions of recidivism rate among the inmates who participated in prison industry  programs during imprisonment is very low  compared  to those who dint participate in the program (Maguire, Flanaga and Thornberry 19). It is evident that the results from the observation that provision of skills training to juvenile offenders achieved tremendous results as opposed to other methods in regard to reduction of recidivism rates. Having prisoners participate in education programmes significantly address possible causes of recidivism which is influenced by lack of skills and education. The most effective policy that has brought change in juvenile criminal justice system is the use of restitution sanction.

The CNN report according to Ravitz (2010) showed that large number of people turned for a job fair designed for convicted individuals which were organized by organizers of the Road to Re-entry Employment Fair. The organization objective was to ensure that individuals with criminal records secured jobs and got reintegrated into society. It emerged out that the number was very high beyond the expectation of fair sponsors, ex-convicts wanted to be productive members of society while the criminal record held them back from securing employments (Koch, 2010). Importantly, employment and decent income has a strong relation by lowering rates of re-offence in the society. It is very important that the legal protection must be provided to ex-convicts in order for them to be employed and accepted by the society (Aukerman 77). Industries such as manufacturing, construction and transport have been distributed to individuals who are willing to accept ex-convicts (Bushway, Stoll and Weiman 95).

Actuarial schemes in regard to sexual violence have been developed in response to the changing legislative in both the United States and Canada. It is argued that the policy is accurate in use of clinical assessments which are associated with recidivism. The increase in epidemic of sexual abuse in the society has made it possible for legislation to increase incapacitation of offenders. The approach is used in designating danger of sexual offenders who requires mental health assessment to predict the risk of future harm to others (Glancy 48).

The business incubation is a revolution and innovative concept which has been established to reduce recidivism within generations. The main objective of business incubation are job creation opportunities in the community, enhancement of entrepreneurship skills, retaining of businesses in the society, development of local industry and diversification of local economy. Most released individuals from prisons are in possession of intellect, business prowess and entrepreneurial skills. Capital and support must be provided to ex-convicts to build successful business firms which will result to good income and job opportunities to other ex-prisoners (Koch, 2010). Following initial private placement financing projects for reentry policy, the parent incubation organization becomes self-funding by retaining a small equity position in each of the incubated enterprises and through an overhead sharing agenda. The portion of total overhead that operate the parent organization and each of the business incubators will be shared equally among ex-convicts population enterprise businesses.This strategy comprises of six major objectives. The first objective is holding of the parent organization accountable to its entire constituency. Second aim is the cultivation of team effort and peer accountability in ex-prisoner population enterprise businesses to practice spending discipline and use of resources prudently. The third aim is that the cost to each business enterprise is expected to decrease as the populations of enterprise businesses grow and develop. Financial incentives must be carefully created, reviewed and approved by the sponsorship of all incubator businesses. Fifth, synergy is created whereby all CEOs have a vested interest on the success of one another and business. Lastly, the entire organization must be self-policing. Among the objectives, the parent incubation organization will build an endowment from the success of its incubated businesses. These in turn provide basis of capitalization growth for a continuing and self-perpetuating business incubation agenda throughout the ex-convict population business enterprise.

Prisoner recidivism can be reduced through the provision of culturally appropriate programmes, the custodial and non-custodial policy. Provision of an effective and culturally appropriate programme is significant to Aboriginal offenders in both custodial and non-custodial environments. The policy reinforces the importance of utilizing the intersection of a native person with the criminal justice system as an opportunity for a beneficial intervention designed to reduce the likelihood of reoffending.

Government policies should intensify social welfare system and civic participation to reduce crimes. Social and cultural contexts are main predictors of recidivism. It is evident that nations with strong social institutions such as community, religion and family experiences low rates of crime and recidivism.  In contrary, where there is low proportions of economic inequality and unemployment are most likely to experience low rates of recidivism, so it is strongly advisable that nations should adopt the policy of equal distribution of resources  and social values (Baumer 50).

One way of facilitating convicts is allowing them to stay near country by encouraging the development of vocational skills is through the provision of work camps. It is evident that work camps seem to be significant traditional forms of incarceration. The policy encourages offenders to work on or near country which results to development of vocational skills, by facilitating engagement in productive work. Work camp provides opportunities to convicts in making a positive contribution to their local community by providing labor in local areas. The programme would enable offenders to live on or near country which contributes to more consistent traditional manner of life, acquiring vocational skills and provision of much needed labor to the community.

It is evident that community based sanctions is effective in reducing recidivism. The response to criminal offence should include sanctions other than the tradition jail term in order for policy to be both effective and cost-effective with aim of long-term change of offender behavior to reduce recidivism. The use of wide range of interventions by involving community service in compliance to sanction proved to be successful. The use of probation as part of intervention reduces number of crime and re-offence. The alternatives policy to incarceration has been established to reduce prisoner recidivism whereby children of prisoners are involved in the program. Some type of community-based sentencing is involved these involve house arrest, halfway houses or day programs at correctional institutions with the mother returning home at night. The survey done on the community-based programs reported reduced recidivism and increased family preservation of values. The policy is effective for women prisoners since community and children are being involved in the process of individual reentry to the society (Coley and Barton 165).

The introduction of penal policy to deal with the convict real world problems is effective in ex-offenders reentry to society. The policy involves formation of small prison group community which comprises of prisoners and prison staff members.  The process is therapeutic, where community is being involved.  Therapeutic process involves the group of   community and prisoners. Prisoners are allowed to narrate their life history and criminal activities with the attention of specialists who are willing to reform and counsel the prisoners. The process is significant for behavior which involves five basic stages namely Recognition, Motivation, Understanding, Insight and Testing.

Availability of education and counseling programs in prisons is significant in reducing prisoner recidivism. Most correctional facilities provide education and counseling programs. Educational systems should provide vocational training, basic adult education, secondary education, special education services, college classes and study-release programs to equip convicts with knowledge and skills needed for the reentry of community (Koch 394). Educational institutions also provided variety of counseling services which are mostly related to alcohol and drug dependency and awareness. Prisons also provided counseling programs to help inmates adjust to the life in community after release. These counseling programs include life skills, community adjustment and employment. The confinement facilities are most likely than community-based facilities to provide counseling programs of all types.

Conclusion
In conclusion, prisons cannot be completely reformed without reduction of recidivism rate. While at the same time recidivism cannot be reduced without creation of more space and programs for prisoners. Giving chance to ex-convicts to secure employment opportunities has benefit to society since recidivism is reduced thus, the funds which could be used in rehabilitation can be diverted to improve other sectors such as health and education. The real action of reducing recidivism resides on creating, designing, delivering and evaluation effective correctional and rehabilitation programmes that are effective.

The current frame for addressing ex-convicts community reentry ineffectively directs political, scientific, and fiscal resources towards the prevention of recidivism. The policy must be reframed by use our resources to uncover the causes of recidivism and further development of primary prevention programs designed to reach a wide range of audience. The society ought to seek to eradicate the self-perpetuating scourge of prisoner recidivism. To make progress on this daring goal, one must be careful  while framing the efforts appropriately by asking and answering the proper question by basing the policies and laws not on moral panic, urban legends,  headlines and easy sound bites but on systemic and comprehensive empirical information about the prevalence and causes prisoner  recidivism . Solutions must be designed   in a way that will take full responsibility for the societal role in allowing the conditions under which ex-convict community reentry can flourish.  Resources are available and knowledge and skills must be developed in formulation the policies which will solve problems of prisoner recidivism.

Despite the flow of criminals into prison, they are expected to be prepared to return to the society and function as productive citizens. Most subsequent studies have found that education and training in prison are significant in reducing prisoner recidivism.  Ex-offenders should be helped to readjust to community life. Re-entry programs are typically short term duration thus just before prisoners are released they should be provided with continuing transition services which are effective in reducing recidivism.