The use of visual images and the tools necessary for producing them are almost everywhere within the society. Photography has over time basic necessity in to the middle class, upper class citizens and in the criminology department. Despite the fact that photography plays an important part in criminology, it has over time been overlooked and its contribution towards criminology have gone un-noticed.
Significance and the strong points of photography
Photography makes it possible to document any form of evidence which can be required within the criminal justice systems. Both forensic and legal photography provide investigative and exculpatory materials that are relevant in the courts of law.
Photography has over time been used by journalists in investigative or undercover journalism. Photography is also significant in crime scenes especially where vivid demonstrations and description about a criminal incident is needed. Photographs give an overview or a bigger picture of a crime scene.
Photography is also used to produce evidence incases where crimes against humanity such as genocide and ethnic cleansing have been committed. In that, the photography provides an overview of the strategies that the criminals do employ and by so doing the officers will device counter strategies. Photography is also used to add more emotion effect to any inculpatory or exculpatory form of evidence. Photography is also used in forensics to document, identify and convict criminals (Carrabine, et al, 2004).
Photography and cold cases
Photography is also used in cold cases to produce tangible images as well as enable investigators to comprehend what actually transpired. It is vital in cold cases in that it gives room for any new witness, provides a better analysis of the causes of any crime and often leads to better and conclusive results. Photography can be used in cold cases as a compelling tool to exonerate those who had been previously accused of committing an offence. That is, photography can be used as a post conviction tool in cold cases.
Disadvantagesweak points
Regardless of the significance of photography to criminology, the visual evidence which i used in investigations is subject to manipulation by photographers. This has even been made worse by the rapid growth in the use of digital cameras.
How to fully exploit photography
In order to fully exploit the photography the public should be encouraged to embrace the use of digital technology which creates room for immediate image review. It also permits image manipulation which is an area that requires to be properly understood. In that, the public is not aware that images from digital cameras do have a time and date which reduces the chances of manipulation. The law enforcers should also embrace the use of photography as a research and training tool in the criminal justice settings. The public awareness will go a long way in eliminating the wrong perception about authenticity (Carrabine, et al, 2004).
In conclusion, the significant contribution of photography towards criminology should no longer be taken lightly and the two should be integrated in a bid to reduce the rising insecurity problem among cities. Also, though the initial cost outlay of the digital world is high, the public and other bodies should be encouraged to switch to it.
Due to the ever growing concern for security in our communities, nations have invested much in law enforcements. It is due to such that we have the Crime Scene Investigation department in our nation. This department engages in investigations to establish the underlying evidence of criminal acts, its gravity and those involved. Such procedures include not only the actual physical evidence collected from the crime scene by the crime investigators but also deductive evidence qualified by a forensic scientist (National Institute of Justice, 2000). It is to be noted here that since the sole duty of a crime scene investigator is to qualify physical and forensic evidence from a crime scene, the individual should both be a qualified law enforcer and preferably have a degree in criminal investigation or forensic science (Layton, 2010).
This post is written as a discussion of a crime scene investigator. The author in particular takes a look on the actual duties of a crime scene investigator, the training that is necessary and their primary mission in ensuring sustainable security in the community. A discussion on the requirements for becoming a crime scene investigator is also given.
Definition of a crime scene investigator
A crime scene investigator is basically a trained law enforcer whose sole duty is to retrieve physical evidence from crime scenes for the purposes of qualifying conviction evidence against the criminal offenders (Byrd, 2000). It is worth stating here that such evidence is usually collected from the crime scene which can be simply defined as the actual place in which a criminal act was carried out. Still, it is evidently clear that in some special occasions there is little or no reliable physical evidence in the crime scene thus calling for the use of forensic tests to qualify evidence. Such involve the use of DNA laboratory tests (National Institute of Justice, 2000).
The job and primary mission of a crime scene investigator
The job of a crime scene investigator is to collect both physical and forensic evidence from crime scene so as to aid in the resolving of complex criminal cases in our nation (Layton, 2010). It is to be noted here that unlike normal crimes which are dealt with by law enforcement agencies, crime scene investigators are mainly charged with much critical duties which involve high degrees of intelligence. Such scenes include cases of homicide, robbery of murder and sex offences crimes (National Institute of Justice, 2000).
Since the sole aim of the crime scene investigator is to collect physical evidence from the crime scene, it is his or her duty to collect any available physical evidence including the use of photographing of the scene if need be. It is to be note here that due to the complexity of most of the crimes involved, most crime scene investigator involves the use of highly advanced equipments or technologies to collect such evidences. Still evidently clear is the fact that the crime scene investigator must provide the evidence to the relevant law enforcement agents. It is due to this reason that their duties involve the individual handling and packaging of the physical evidence.
Another mission of a crime scene investigator is to ensure the ultimate qualification of crime scene evidence (Fisher, 2004). It is to be noted here that this is the most respected and trust legal unit in the American nation. This means that they should always safeguard the reputation and integrity of their office. It is due to this reason that the collection of the physical evidence might be followed by laboratory tests of the suspects DNA before questioning and arresting them for legal procedures (Byrd, 2000). This process involves the assistance of a forensic scientist who qualifies the DNA composition to link with the said suspect.
Training of a crime scene investigator
According to the current American legal provision for becoming a Crime Scene Investigator, the candidate should possess a bachelors degree (National Institute of Justice, 2000). It is however to be noted that the best degree for ensuring a competitive advantage in the selection process is a forensic science degree. However, any degree can still qualify, especially ones to do with criminal justice. This is because all police departments have a degree certificate as a crucial qualification. Still to be noted is the fact that a degree in criminology with some emphasis in forensics can greatly improves ones chances of winning the job (Layton, 2010). From this, it is evidently clear that the education qualification for the post of Crime Scene Investigator is highly dependent on the individual candidate although official training is give upon selection.
Another training that is necessary is the fact that one has to be a certified law enforcer (Pepper, 2005). It is a common practice that crime scene investigators have had to serve for as many years in low police positions before qualifying for selection into the CSI. It is to be realized here that though crime scene investigation is seen as an independent unit in the law enforcement, it is highly sensitive thus necessitating the absolute need to have qualify in knowing the law and its enforcement. Still, another requirement is the fact that during the many years of serving as a police officer, one should have participated in crime scene processing activities to increase his or her chances if becoming a crime scene investigator.
It is nevertheless to be appreciated that crime scene investigation is not just qualified by experience as a police but much in involves training in the CSI training college. This college mainly involves training on the reliable use of the crime scene processing equipments and technologies. Another thing to be realized is the fact that every constitutional office particularly such a sensitive security office must be qualified by a clear knowledge of legal justice system and the law before swearing into office (Horsewell, 2004). It is however to be noted here that the crime scene investigator profession in made up of many individuals who work together in coordination both at the crime scene and at the forensic laboratories. It is thus a matter of choice andor individual qualification to determine the place to work in. The forensic lab operators for example must qualify by having a degree in forensic science as well as having credible experience in the same.
How to become a crime scene investigator
Having exposed the core involvements of a crime scene investigator, it is now clear that the process of becoming a CSI is first determined by the level and kind of education one has. It is in this line that one needs to have at least a degree in forensic or criminal justice sciences. It is also clear that the ultimate success in qualifying for the post is highly dependent on ones experience in the field. This is what makes most of the CSI members to be trained police officers. Therefore, one should seek for an internship with a police department or Criminal Investigation Agents (Layton, 2010). Such gives the individual an opportunity to gain experience in crime scene processing thus standing a better chance in wining the post.
It is however to be noted that there is much need to proof to the CSI employment board that you are of substantial value to the department. This requires that you acquire as much knowledge on the operations of the department as possible. Such information should in fact include the operational code of private investigating agents and government organization such as the tobacco bureau among others (National Institute of Justice, 2000). Still to be noted here is the fact that technological advancements are changing day and night in our modern society. It is due to this reason that there is much need for all members in the CSI department to continue learning. This should first be seen to increase the individuals chances of getting a better salary. Such also ensures that the officer is always on the competitive edge in the crime scene instigation activities thus increased reliability.
It has been evidently established that the main job of a crime scene investigator is to collect and package physical evidence from the location of the crime. It is however clear that the qualification demands that the individual should have preferably a degree in forensic science. In a nutshell, the ultimate qualification into the CSI requires tangible knowledge on the law, justice system and law enforcement. This makes the greater percentage of the crime scene investigators have their roots from the police department. Due to the sensitivity of the position and the ever changing technologies in the modern society, it is always advisable to keep up dated by continuing with education. This improves both chances of getting a bigger salary as well as ensuring sustainable quality of services.
Acquaintance Rape
This term refers to a sexual act in which the participants are known to each other and one partner applies force to sexually assault the other without his or her consent. There is a clear indication from research carried out that the most affected group is women especially with their lovers during dates. This has been proved to come about as a result of myths that people have concerning sex and sexual rights. For instance, when men buy women drinks or any present they think that it is a merit for a sexual act with the woman or the fact that when a woman says no she means yes. In order to address this issue, there are several social changes that should be considered. This article will look into some of them.
Communication
Communication is a very important aspect in humanity. People and especially women should say what they mean and mean what they say. Communication should be both verbal as well as physical. Girls have been reported to say no to sex yet allow men to touch their bodies anyhow and which eventually give mixed messages to men during their dates (Filla, 2010). In communication, men should also learn to respect womens feelings as well their decision failure to which might lead to rape especially if a woman resists and her words are ignored. Even during dates it would be wise for lovers to communicate on the boundaries they want to set for each other in the relationship it is not wise to assume because a partner might end up going to some extends that would be detrimental to the relationship (The University of Michigan, 2009).
Education
It is very important to teach people the risks that might occur during dates and especially rape cases with acquaintances. This involves telling those going out for dates to avoid very secluded places which highly contribute to sexual advances and finally rape. During the early part of a relationship it is normally advisable for the young lovers to meet in the open otherwise many have been sexually assaulted making some to hate men and never engage in other relationships. During such educative programs, it would be wise for instance, to allow girls freely talk about their experiences so as to help some who might be vulnerable to the same. Such educative programs should not be biased but should consider both men and women since even men are raped nowadays (Filla, 2010). Through these educative forums, men will be taught to be responsible of their behaviors especially basing on the myths they hold concerning sex and women. The boy child should also be informed especially basing on the fact that women rape men. He should be warned against allowing people to touch their private parts. As much as men are expected to be responsible of their actions, the girl child and women should also dress appropriately not exposing their bodies thus tempting men. The society expects them to have self control but it would be wise still if women played their role.
Alcoholism and other related drugs
Many sexual assaults have occurred and most of the victims attribute their behaviors to drinking or other related drugs. It would be wise to date someone when sober. Alcohol affects peoples decisive power as well as the power of restriction. It therefore makes individuals for instance, women become helpless and men take advantage of this and might even end up raping them. Ecstasy is one of the drugs just like alcohol that has also contributed highly to rape (Lyness, 2009). Date rape drugs are normally tasteless and odorless and therefore an individual cannot easily detect. Most of these drugs end up rendering an individual helpless and unconscious and most of them do not normally remember what happened from the moment they were given the drugs and the time of the rape. In case one is out, it is normally advisable to only accept drinks from the waiter and avoid getting unsealed drinks from people (Quinn Arnold, 2010).
Parental role
Parents should take the role of teaching children about being cautious especially to their family friends when the parents are not around. This mostly concerns the girl child who is at a higher risk from men who come home in the name of uncles. Children should also be taught against accepting gifts anyhow or if they do so they should be very cautious about the same. Parents should therefore learn to have time with their children. Teens should be given proper and adequate information about sex such as how to protect oneself from it as well as date rape drugs. As much as they might be hard topics to tackle with the youth it would be beneficial since they would built trust with the parents and could easily express their grievances. A research showed that 9 out of ten teens that had open conversation about sex with their parents were able to abstain from sexual intercourse (Albert, 2004). Parents and the entire society should change the attitude which stipulates the inequality of girls and boys thus curbing against rape. It involves learning to talk on an equal ground about men and women.
It is evident that it is a social responsibility for individuals as well as the society to curb against acquaintance rape. Debunking the myths that have catalyzed this act should be the first priority and this can be achieved through educative programs. On an individual level every one has aright to say no or yes to sex. It therefore calls for proper communication which cannot bring about mixed feelings. Men should learn to take women by their words and women should also learn to be consistent in both verbal and nonverbal communication. Young childrens sexual assault by relatives or family friends should be the role of the parents to guide their children in sexual education.
The 18th century kept a record of questionable organization within the Dublin Metropolitan police. The provision of security during the night was inefficient while during the day the police were no were to be seen. The city had been divided in to several parishes in which the watch system was to be exercised. Security was made available in each parish by a group of selected watchmen who did their duties in turn. The work of supervision was laid in the hands of the parishioners while a constable took charge of the groups. The watch system was different for different times in the year. The night watch mandated from 1st of April to Michaelmas was from 2300 hours to 5 A.M. Night watch was carried out from 2200 hours to 6 am for the remaining days of the year (PoliceHistory.com, 2009).
The need of strengthening the night vigil was important. This was addressed in the Statue published in 1715. The3 appointment of Constables and Watchmen was rendered in the hands of the Dublin Corporation. Subsequent amendments were done to get better the watch system. To enable distribution of responsibilities of arm distribution, handling salary issues to watchmen and determining the number of watchmen required, the statue provided for inclusion of supervisors and directors in the watch system. Selection of watchmen and constables was later left in the hands of the court (Babylon.com, 2009).
Subsequent reforms were welcomed with the inclusion of magistrates and commissioners in the system. The chief constable was mandated to carry out patrols both at night and during the day. As a police chief, I would put various aspects into play. I would ensure that the petty constables carry their duties efficiently without creating loopholes in the system.
When Francis Scott Key penned his famous poem The Star Spangled Banner, he referred to the United States to be the land of the free (Key 1814). While he may have viewed the country to be as such when he composed his poem, which eventually became the lyrics of the National Anthem of the United States, history would clearly show that the truth was actually far from it. More than a century after this poem was written, African Americans living in the United States were bounded by discrimination and racial prejudice, preventing them to gain any access to some of the most basic rights that their White American counterparts enjoyed.
Discrimination and racial prejudice had been a long standing problem faced by African Americans for many decades. While reading through the entire chapter, I was immediately taken aback by the sheer horror that African Americans faced through the decades all because of the color of their skin. Young men who were not even old enough to drive have been victims of harsh and cruel methods of punishment and the supposed carrying out of justice. The account on the arrest of Rosa Parks in 1955 on the grounds that she refused to give up her seat in the bus for a white man (Toth, Crew Burton 2008) was just equally shocking and appalling. Had she been a white woman, it is most likely that the man would not even bother to request her to give up her seat in the first place. For something as trivial as a matter of a seat in the bus to be sufficient cause to warrant an arrest clearly depicted the gravity and severity of the discrimination and racial prejudiced experienced by men and women of all ages simply by the color of their skin.
In an effort to live up to the words heralded in both the Constitution of the United States and its National Anthem, the government passed the Civil Rights Act in 1957 (Toth, Crew Burton 2008). The passing of this law was done in the hopes of giving African Americans equal rights, opportunities and privileges that White Americans have been enjoying. Unfortunately, this was not to be the case, as it was clearly seen in the accounts provided in the chapter. Discrimination and prejudice continued to be rampant throughout the United States against African Americans so much so that the Civil Rights Act had to be amended and passed again in 1964 (Toth, Crew Burton 2008). Again, the passing of this act was unsuccessful in ensuring that African Americans are viewed and regarded by their White American counterparts as their equals.
According to the readings, there were three reasons as to why despite the fact that the Civil Rights Act was passed in 1957 and amended in 1964, African Americans were still not free from the bondage of racial discrimination and prejudice. Out of the three reasons mentioned, the one that stood out for me was the inadequacy of state enforcement systems (Toth, Crew Burton 2008, p. 20). It takes more than a bill or an act to be passed through Congress for it to become effective and serve its purpose. Unless the law enforcement systems of the country would not do anything to enforce this to ensure that the provision specified in the bill is observed, the bill will be useless. Looking through the different accounts presented in the reading, it can be seen that local law enforcement officials were directly or indirectly responsible for the prevalence of racial discrimination and prejudice among African Americans. In fact, it was mentioned in the readings that if Blacks solely relied on the established local institutions for redress of grievances, there was little likelihood of success (Toth, Crew Burton 2008, p. 19). Clearly, the African Americans were in a no-win situation. By going through the legal procedures, the chances that their concerns would be addressed were slim to none. On the other hand, by practicing their right to free speech as well as the right to assemble in a peaceful manner as stated in the First Amendment of the Constitution (National Constitution Center NCC 2010), African Americans had to face the possibility of the otherwise peaceful assembly to turn into a riot brought about by law enforcement officials who attempt to break off the assembly and arrest.
While African Americans have, indeed, been the victims of racial prejudice and discrimination, this is not to say that they did not also have their own share of prejudice and discrimination towards White Americans. Perversion of the concept of Black Power promotion of the equal treatment to African Americans without the compromise of their own cultural heritage and identity in the recent years has also led to a number of different African American groups causing terror and acts of violence towards White Americans for the sole reasons that they are white. One particular example mentioned in this reading was the account regarding Malcolm X who, in one of his teachings, referred to the White Americans as the devil (Toth, Crew Burton 2008, p. 25). This form of indoctrination and other similar teachings regarding White Americans may account for the over 300 different riots instigated by African Americans in the United States between the years 1935 and 1968 (Toth, Crew Burton 2008).
Although African Americans and other minority groups residing in the United States today experience much more equality and freedom as compared to the previous decades, there are still instances where traces of this can still be observed in different facets of society. The Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution clearly states that all persons born or naturalized in the United States are entitled to be protected by the law. The presence of racial discrimination and prejudice is a clear violation of this amendment (NCC 2010, Toth, Crew Burton 2008). The presence of prejudice and racial discrimination may never be completely eradicated. Nevertheless, one must ensure that equality should be practiced at all times towards a particular individual regardless of race and ethnical background.
Criminology is basically the study of crime as a social event, including the consequences, types, prevention, causes and punishment of crime, and criminal behavior, as well as the impact and development of laws. Criminology became popular during the 19th century as an aspect of social development wherein the public attempted to identify the character of misdemeanors and develop more valuable techniques of criminal treatment and deterrence. In view of that, several diverse schools of thought in criminology eventually emerged, including the two of the most popular and diverging schools of thought today, the positivist school that focuses on the actor, and the classical school that focuses on the offense. Classical School vs. Positivist School of Criminology
The Classical School of Criminology is premised on the theory that people have free will in formulating decisions, and that punishment is capable of deterring crime, so long as it is carried out without delay and is appropriate and in proportion to the crime committed. The Classical School claims that although people are pleasure-seeking, they are a very rational creature. Moreover, although humans generally act on their own selfishness, they are likewise capable of judging and using the more appropriate approach in a given situation. In other words, people are deemed by the Classical School as moral creatures with unqualified freedom to choose between right and wrong.
In addition, the Classical School believes that when humans commit a criminal act, the act is assumed to have been done of their own free will. Accordingly, this school of thought believes that people should be held or adjudged accountable for their wrongful acts. Nevertheless, the Classical School avers that a well-rounded government should enforce punishments and laws that allow people to properly assess the actions they can take in a given situation.
Positivist School of Criminology, on the other hand, takes a different position as it establishes rational independence for the quantification and measurement of criminal behavior. This school of thought presumes that criminal behavior is caused by social and psychological factors that make some individuals more inclined towards criminality than others. In other words, people are inherently good, but as a consequence of their background and environment, they eventually become socially bad. For that reason, the Positivist School discards the perspective of Classical School that all crimes resulted from a choice after careful assessment of the advantages and disadvantages.
In sum, Classical and Positivist Schools both share the same idea that criminal behavior could be controlled and is a consequence of human nature that is innate in all people. The two schools believe that the most serious crimes can only be perpetrated by people who are atavistic or primitive, or people who failed to change into a civilized and fully human state. All the same, Positivists School is concerned with reforming the offenders by logically identifying and isolating the decisive causes of the individual offenders criminal behavior, while Classical School centers on retribution by creating an environment wherein crime is based on human free will.
The Positivist School initially studies the natural origin of crime, followed by its legal and social outcomes in order to present, by legal and social means, the different remedies that have the utmost impact on the different causes that lead to the commission of a crime. In contrast, the interests of the Classical School with regard to the causes of criminal behavior are on penology and justice, and ultimately through the idea that human is a devious creature.
The system primarily encompasses a combination of institutions and practices of state governments whose main objective is to uphold deterring, crime mitigation and social control with respect to set procedural rules and regulations. (Frase Weidner, 2010). In United States (US), the criminal justice system is defined as means of enforcing standards of conduct essential in ensuring individuals and the entire community is protected by the society. The goal of this system does not vary greatly with country, for instance in England, its objective is to reduce criminal activities by ensuring more offences are brought to justice as well as enhance public confidence on the system (Criminal justice system, 2008).
Aimed at ensuring that the system meets its goals, all entities have their roles defined clearly and protocols laid down. The system entails policing which includes police officers or federal agents, courts which include district attorney, defense counsel, and judgesmagistrates, and corrections which entails prisons and other rehabilitation facilities. The first stage of the criminal justice system involves the police or law enforcement authorities who conduct investigations and arrest an offender. Police officers are empowered to use force or any other means of legal coercion to ensure social and public order is maintained (Neocleous, 2004).
Following policing, are the courts which provide the platform for settling the disputes and ensuring administration of justice. The judge or the magistrate is person of great knowledge regarding the law, whose role entails administering the legal proceedings and providing a final decision on the case at hand. The district attorney or prosecutor is the lawyer responsible for bringing charges against a person or a corporation. The role of the district attorney entail providing a comprehensive explanation to the court regarding the crime committed and the evidence obtained that implicates involvement of the accused. On the other hand, the defense attorney provides counseling to the accused on matters concerning the legal process, probable outcome and also proposes strategies aimed at avoiding penalties. The role of the defense attorney involves representing the interest of the accused, raise evidentiary as well as procedural issues, and ensure the prosecution comprises of adequate basis in proving the accused guilty (Frase Weidner, 2010).
In a case, the prosecutors office can be involved in pre-arrest or post-arrest. If the police officer has adequate grounds under the state law to make the arrest, the involvement of the prosecutors office is not necessary. However, if there are no grounds to make the arrest, the officer is required to file a report with the prosecutor who then files charges with the court and the judge will provide a warrant for arrest depending on the case or indictments.
The complexity of a case plays an important role in determining the prosecutors involvement at the initial stages of an investigation. In a simple case, involving the prosecutor in early stages is unnecessary as this will make the investigation process slow and complicated. However, in complex cases, it is imperative to involve the prosecutor as the officer will save time which would have been wasted in arresting the offender only later to be relieved of all charges because the arrest was unlawful. Conversely, the role of the defense attorney is not restricted since the lawyer can be involved in a case prior to indictment or arrest (HG.org, 2010). Many people contact lawyers the moment they become a suspect for provision of advice regarding their actions during the investigation and also to ensure they understand and maintain their rights.
The judicial process can commence after an arrest or with the state presenting information to the judicial authority in order for them to issue a warrant for an arrest. In the modern era, the legislature is responsible for setting most laws and rules as a code, ordinance or statute (Beatson, 2006). As result of criminal laws being written by the legislature, the courts receive challenges regarding whether they conform to the constitutional requirements thus an unconstitutional statute is considered invalid. With regards to the due process clause the accused person should be made aware by law on issues allowed and those forbidden, and the potential punishments. The constitution also separates matters of state from those of federal jurisdiction and none can infringe on each others right, except under the constitution specifications (Beatson, 2006).
Common law crimes vary from actions criminalized by statute. Common law crimes entail criminal activities recognized by the courts, and also include administrative procedures coupled with rules of evidence. Criminal statutes encompass what is prohibited and the penalties involved. Currently, statutory law surpass common law as most of the laws in states are statutory law, however in some cases where there is no statute on an issue some elements of the common law are retained (Beatson, 2006).
In conclusion, the role of the criminal justice system is to ensure provision of social order through reduction of criminal activities and protection of individual rights as well as enhance confidence in the system by the public.
