Criminology

This study is an analysis of female delinquency in selected areas of the United States. The aim of the study is to explore available literature and statistics on this phenomenon, which scholars are of the view that it has been largely neglected. General statistics points to the fact that there is a general rise in juvenile female delinquency. The causes of this trend vary and are influenced by socio-economic demographics among other factors. The aim of this study is therefore to explore these causes, evaluate their prevalence and assess the profile of girls who are likely to become delinquent. The study will adopt a comparative nature, where statistics from Washington Metropolitan Area, Florida and Maryland will be analyzed. To achieve a focused analysis, a primary research will be carried out which will rely on existing and established literature sources to make recommendations for appropriate intervention measures.

The study of girls delinquency has been a rare phenomenon among social scholars for a long period of time. One of the underlying reasons for this tendency has been the fundamental fact that girls are less likely to be delinquent compared to boys. As such, a great deal of efforts has been channeled towards studying boys, their juvenile tendencies and how the justice system handles them (Chesney-Lind, 1997). In the recent past, especially the latter part of the 20th century and this century, the rise in statistics of girls delinquency has raised considerable interest in the issue. It is now a common belief, based on social statistics that the rate of girls delinquency has been increasing at a faster rate than that of the boys. For this reason, this study aims to put efforts to analyze this phenomenon, by analyzing available statistics, literature theories as well as doing a primary research to establish the trends. To address this trend, a realistic approach would be to scrutinize available statistics on girls arrests and involvement in gangs in specific states and relate the statistics with existing theoretical frameworks on the likely causes of girls involvement in crime. In this study, the approach will be to do a thorough document search on the topic and couple it with a primary research based on interviews on a selected respondents population, who the researcher feels would be in a position to respond to questions on juvenile females.

Background of the Study
The frequency of juvenile female delinquency varies geographically with some states recording higher rates as compared to others. Generally, states with a high poverty index have a high rate of juvenile female delinquency. Based on the two comparative areas adopted in this study (Washington Metropolitan Area and Florida), data available shows a significant difference between female juvenile delinquency in areas such as Florida and Maryland. The tables below compare the trends and numbers from the two geographical areas

Table 1. Florida Top Female Offenses, 1993
OffenseNumberPercentLarceny8,04548Miscellaneous2,29614Simple assault1,4539Aggravated assault1,1527Burglary8365Motor vehicle theft7334Drug arrest4863Liquor law violations2732Vandalism2381Weapons violations2041Adapted from httpojjdp.ncjrs.govpubsgenderstate-fl.html

Table 2. Maryland Top Female Offenses, 1993
OffenseNumberPercentAssault2,15221.5Theft1,51015.1Shoplifting1,02810.3Ungovernable behavior7347.3Alcohol violations5675.7Runaway4594.6Auto theftunauthorized use4204.2Other419 4.2Unspecified misdemeanor368 3.7Disorderly conduct357 3.6Adapted from httpojjdp.ncjrs.govpubsgenderstate-md.html

From the report, a large number of youths were living in poor families (whose income was below 50 of poverty level index in 1995) in Florida than in Maryland. On average, the poverty level in Florida can be associated with the averagely high female juvenile arrests in Florida than in Maryland during the time.

Purpose of the study
As mentioned above, the number of girls being involved in juvenile delinquent cases has increased manifold in the recent past. It is the hypothesis of this study that this increment is founded on a number of factors, which requires analysis so that if possible, they can help in shaping policies concerning girls delinquency. The aim of the study will hence be to explore and analyze the juvenile female and correlate it with causal factors, primarily poverty. The areas targeted to guide this research are the Washington Metropolitan area which incorporates Washington D.C., Virginia and Maryland. As a comparative guide, an analysis of juvenile female will also be analyzed in Florida and Baltimore and assess whether there exists similarities or differences in the trends in the two comparative areas. The fact that the cases of juvenile females has been increasing is of concern not only to the immediate families of such girls but also to the society at large. The study will hence make an analysis of what female delinquency means to the society, its impact and future implications. In regard to the policy making bodies, female delinquency is also a matter of concern and the study will put efforts in analyzing whether there exists bodies dealing with the issue and if they exist, the strategies that they adopt to curb the problem. In addition, this study will assess whether there are remedies to the situation and what roles different agencies such as the family, religious organizations, the criminal justice department and other agencies dealing with young people issues should play in juvenile female delinquency.

Objectives of the study

Broad objective
To examine and analyze juvenile female delinquency and its causal agents primarily poverty in the Washington Metropolitan and compare it with that in Baltimore and Florida. To aid in a focused analysis of the broad objective, the study will adopt specific objectives that can analyze each issue narrowly.  As such, the specific objectives of the study will be

To examine the profile (personality) of girls who end up in juvenile crime.

To assess the psycho-social and emotional characteristics of girls that predisposes them to juvenile delinquency tendencies.

To study juvenile female and poverty in the specified areas (Washington metropolitan area compared to Florida and Baltimore)

To assess statistical trends of female delinquency available from official sources such as the FBI and other government agencies.

To evaluate causes of female delinquency in the target areas.

To compare the trends of female delinquency with those of their counterparts boys in crime.

To assess the crimes that girls in crime are likely to involve in by relying on data available from the two areas in comparison.

Analyze whether there are efforts by the government or other institutions geared towards assisting juvenile female either by advocating for their cause or by engaging in rehabilitation and other efforts that can aid juvenile girls.

Research Questions
This study is founded on a fact-finding approach in which the researcher aims to investigate female delinquency in its wide context. As such, the study will analyze the causes, the processes of becoming a delinquent female, the criminal justice system approach to the delinquent females, the predisposing factors and conditions, efforts in place to assist the group as well as the future prospects of the delinquent female. To aid in this broad analysis, the study will adopt the following study questions to act as a guide
Which family background factors contribute to female delinquency
What roles do school (or lack of it) play in contributing to female delinquency
What do statistics show on female delinquency in the selected areas
Are there impacts of female delinquency to the society
Does over criminalization contribute to too much arrest of young girls caught in minor crimes
How do girls get initiated into gangs Are there predisposing factors
Are there biological (nature) contributions to girls getting in crime
What roes do institutions such as religious bodies and behavior modeling institutions play in curbing female delinquency
Which crimes do girls get into
Using these questions as a guide, the researcher is assured of doing a focused analysis that may reflect the real situation of female delinquency in the selected areas.

Significance of the Study
In the study of crime, a significant observation is that there exist gender assumptions and disparities in the whole process of crime commission and the consequent criminalization process. A primary fact is that traditionally, women are les likely to be involved in crime compared to their men counterparts.

When statistics points to the fact that the rate of female delinquency is increasing more than that of men, there is bound to be concerns on the reasons behind the trend. Considering also the role that young girls are expected to play in the society in their adulthood, it is prudent to assess why they are caught up in crime at their young age, with an aim of exposing the causes and possibly recommending solutions that can curb the issue. For this reason, this study is significant since it may illuminate the causes, suggest solutions and unearth facts that are not yet in the public domain which can be used as a modality of addressing the critical issue of young girls turning to crime.

Abbreviations and Definitions
FBI- Federal Bureau of Investigation
RTI-Research Triangle Institute
OJJDP- Office of Juvenile Justice  Delinquency Prevention
For the sake of this study, the following terms will be defined as follows
Juvenile Delinquency- A broad-based term that refers to children who commit crimes (in most jurisdictions, one is considered a child if he is below 18 years of age)
Religiosity- How important religion is to the life of a girl (in this study)

Literature Review
There has been a consistent rise in the interest among scholars and researchers on the issue of female delinquency especially precipitated by an apparent rising trend of girls getting into crime in many States. The FBIs UCR (Uniform Crime Reporting Program), shows that the number of girls arrested in criminal cases have risen tremendously since the 1980s. In the 80s, juvenile females represented only approximately 11 which rose to 18 by 2000 (Scahill, 2000). On the ground, over 75 of all juvenile arrests consist of males who over the years have shown an apparent decline as opposed to their counterpart females who have been rising steadily with time (RTI, 2009). According to Zahn (2005, p. 1), there were approximately 640,000 arrests of juvenile girls under the age of 18 in 2006. Most of the arrests were based on minor crimes such as simple assault, disorderly conduct, larceny and running from their homes. There was however a significant number that was involved in considerable serious offences such as burglary and aggravated assault. There is also a likely possibility that a great number of crimes committed by the juvenile girls go unreported. In a survey conducted by Monitoring the Future in 2006, 26 of girls under 18, mostly in high schools reported having been involved in shoplifting, 15 admitted involvement in gang fight while 32 reported having been involved in some kind of theft. This indicates that theres a possibility of underreporting and therefore underestimates in the statistics on female delinquency.

Profile of a delinquent female
The factors that lead to female delinquency may have similarity with those that causes male delinquency. However, scholars are of the view that girls are more vulnerable than their male counterparts. According to OJJDP (1998), most of the girls who end up in delinquency share a number of similarities which include

The female delinquent is 14-16 years old. A small percentage may have shown tendencies when they were a bit younger than this.

Poverty ridden background
Early age in a high crime neighborhood likely to harbor dens of drugs
From a minority group. (African American constitutes 50 of female delinquents, Hispanics are 34 while 34 are Caucasian)
Poor academic history and a high probability of being a school drop out.
Has in the past used alcohol or abused drugs
Past history of sexual, physical, exploitation or emotional abuse.
Poor background in medical check ups.
Harbors a general negativity towards life views life as oppressive and cruel.
It should however be noted here that not all girls who fit this profile end up in delinquency. A good number of girls exposed to these problems remain resilient and are able to overcome their early life challenges (OJJDP, 1998).

Magnitude of Juvenile female delinquency
The most prevalent youth delinquency occurs among boys. Theirs is more pronounced and physical and is characterized by occurrences such as physical lashing out, getting into fights, setting fires, breaking and destroying items as well as carrying offensive items such as daggers and guns. For this reason, delinquent boys are easy to be noticed because they easily transform to look dangerous and inspire fear. For this reason, it may be easy to implement intervention measures for boys since their delinquency is observable from an early age. According to Prescott (1997), girls get delinquent very quietly and it may take a long time to realize that it has happened. He argues that most of them enter delinquency as victims rather than offenders. The greatest contributing factor comes due to disappointments anger and fright which make them result to emotional snubbing activities that help them escape from their real experiences. Girls who get delinquent start by abusing themselves other than offending the immediate society. For this reason, their delinquency seems harmless and it is easily ignored. The ignorance of the problem by their immediate society drives them to be more desperate and in their bid to seek for solutions, they turn to drugs, prostitution, starving and in worst cases, physical self-assault where they mutilate their bodies (Belknap, 1996).

In a study commissioned by OJJDP in 1996 and conducted by Poe-Yamagata and Butts (1996), the following statistics on female delinquency was collected
The arrests of girls between 15-18 years of age rose from approximately 100 to over 200 per 100,000 females in the period 1983-1992.

In 1992 alone, 121 out of 100,000 females of age 10-17 were arrested for violent crimes offenses.
Law enforcement agencies in the US arrested approximately 570,100 females below 18 years of age in 1993.

In a period of ten years (1983-1992), the overall female juvenile arrests increased by 23, more than double that of their counterpart males which was 11.

In the period 1989-1993, female arrests contributed to a 17 rise in juvenile crimes index (Poe-Yamagata  Butts,. 1996 p. 1-3).

Of 1,489,700 juvenile cases handled by Juvenile courts in the US in 1993, 20 involved females.
The justice system processed female delinquent cases less formally than those involving boys and girls were less likely to be placed in out-of-home placements or detention

In data available for 1993, juvenile females were charged with different offenses which included 6 for non-negligent manslaughter and murder, 9 for robbery, 18 (aggravated crime) and 2 were charged with forcible rape. In property crimes, juvenile females were involved in 31 for larceny, 10 for burglary, 14 for automobile theft and 12.5 for arson charges. Non-index offences in which juvenile females were involved in included 4 for gambling, 9 for sex offences, 8 for weapon offences, 57 for home run-away and approximately 55 for prostitution (Poe-Yamagata  Butts,. 1996 p. 1-3).

It is important to note here that the double digit increase of girls arrests was contributed by particular crimes as opposed to others. The highest percentage resulted from aggravated assault and very little percentage on crimes such as murder, rape or other high index crimes.

In addressing juvenile female delinquency, a critical component that requires analysis regards how the criminal justice system handles crimes committed by female offenders. According to Chesney-Lind and Pasco (2004, vii) the criminal justice system is riddled with victimization, violence, economic marginalization and discrimination which women caught up in crime have to go through.  According to Poe-Yamagata  Butts (1996), the criminal justice system has traditionally shown leniency to the manner it handles female convicts as compared to their male counterparts.  In their study, they identified a discrepancy in the severity of outcomes preferred for both females and males. For instance, females are less likely to be filed for delinquency petition as compared to their male counterparts. In addition, formal handling of female cases is significantly low compared to that of males.

Causes of female delinquency
According to Zahn et al (2008), the official data on girls delinquency has increased significantly in recent years. Part of the explanation of this phenomenon has been a remarkable increase in arrest rates associated with over criminalization and also, the fact that there has been little study in girls delinquency in the past. As of 2004, 25 of all juvenile arrests on aggravated assault charges were female and 33 for other assaults. These figures are sharp increase from the figures that were available in the 1960s when the arrest for females barely exceeded a single digit figure. Of great importance is to analyze some of the reasons why girls become delinquent. It is worth to mention here that past efforts have concentrated on Juvenile delinquency by boys as opposed to girls (American Bar Association  National Bar Association, 2001). As such, little information is available from the past on trends and statistics of female delinquency. The studies available however show some commonality in their research on this issue. Some of the fundamental causes that have repeatedly been identified with delinquency for both boys and girls as profiled by the Girls study Group in the Justice Department includes
Family dynamics- this aspect broadly covers the childs parental upbringing which is assumed as essential in shaping the moral values and character of the child. Fundamental issues in this factor include historical criminal behavior of the family, child maltreatment, parental supervision and monitoring of the childs behaviors and roles. Children from stable families are less likely to become delinquent (RTI, 2009).

Involvement in school activities- the activity of a child in a school determines the peers and places a child frequents. Children involved in responsible programs and are active in academic frontiers are less likely to become delinquent.

The childs early neighborhood  key factors here includes poverty level, employment rate and crime level in a given locality. Poverty and high crime have a strong correlation with the likelihood of Juvenile delinquency. The childs early life is crucial in the socialization process and has an enduring impact on the moral and values foundation of the child.

In addition to these factors, there are those that are likely to influence delinquency in girls more than in their boys counterpart, primarily because of the differences in their biological growth patterns. Such factors include.

Sexual maltreatment and abuse- Historically, the cases of sexual mistreatment for girls are more prevalent than those for boys. Such occurs in the form of rapes, sexual harassment and sexual assaults. Sexual abuse of any kind reduces the self-worth of an individual and when it occurs to girls, it increases their fear, loneliness, negativity and escapism that acts as push factors for juvenile delinquency (RTI, 2009).

Early puberty- This is a biological factor for which girls have little control. Due to sudden changes in their bodys functions and emotional control, girls are most vulnerable at this period due to the pressures associated with the onset of sudden body changes. Though this factor only acts as a predisposing factor, its tendency to cause delinquency increases in families that are dysfunctional and in neighborhoods where the girls receive little protection and guidance during this period. The biological changes occurring during this period may also increase the chances of conflicts between the girl and her close family which could push her to look for relief from outside sources, thereby exposing herself to delinquent tendencies.

Depression and anxiety- These are emotional problems which are more prevalent in adolescent girls than boys. A great tendency for girls undergoing these conditions is to engage in escapism where one seeks relief objects to restore ones well being. For a girl who can access drugs from peers during this condition, there is a high likelihood of engaging in abuse and consequent behaviors (Obeidallah  Earls, 1999).

Romantic partners- The accompanying biological changes that occur in girls during their puberty heighten their interest and association with their male colleagues in form of friendships. At this stage, the consequent relationships are ridden with infatuation and love blindness which makes both susceptible to influence. It is highly likely for a girl to be influenced to delinquent behaviors by their boyfriends and studies show that most girls commit crimes through influence from their male intimate friends.

An analysis of the factors above reveals that the likelihood of occurrence increases with increased dysfunctions in a girls upbringing and exposure to dehumanizing prevalence of poverty and abuse. It can hence be projected that if these factors were addressed, there would be a likely reduction of girls delinquency. Studies in this area have shown that there exist factors which reinforce the strength of young girls and reduce the likelihood of juvenile delinquency. The majority of such factors are entwined in broad concepts such as availability of support, religiosity, school connectedness (positive perception of school life) and success in school work.  Based on these broad concepts, girls delinquency can be minimized by

Presence of caring adults- Such adults would generally denote parents, siblings or close relatives whose lives can serve as examples to the young girls. A study by Zahn et al (2008) revealed that young adolescent girls who were raised in functional families and in the security of caring adults were less likely to engage in any kind of offenses.

School success- Measured in terms of performance in school exams, girls with outstanding performance as a result of hard work are less likely to engage in delinquency.  A majority of school work is tedious and time consuming and this keeps them busy and out of trouble. Besides that, it gives the girls a sense of success and appreciation which improves self concept, identity, worth and values which are key in forming a focused personality. In contrast, girls with poor school performance have a high probability of being idle and disinterested in engaging activities and therefore find themselves with extra time that contributes to boredom and longing for excitement.

School connectedness- this factor is a broad connotation of the emotional and psychological attachment of the girl to the school institutions.  Girls with strong connectedness are likely to be positively inspired by their school environment which would contribute to positive relations with their peers. It would also increase responsibility and thereby shelter the girl from delinquency.

Religiosity- This is a reflection of the girls attachment to religious values. Girls with a high correlate of religiosity are less likely to be delinquent. The strength of this factor is also reinforced by the girls background such as strong family religious background, strong affiliation to a religious institution and the possibility of being an active member of a group within such religious bodies.

Research Methods
This section details the manner in which the data presented in this study was obtained. Primarily, the study aimed to collect both primary and secondary data that would then be consequently analyzed (quantitatively and qualitatively) to reflect the desired results in this study. Reliable primary data could only be accessed through established authorities who would be in a position to respond to questions concerning girls delinquency. As such, an interview questionnaire was used in interviewing twelve respondents who the researcher had sampled and deemed as reliable in this kind of study. The reason for adopting both primary and secondary data was to increase reliability of the data collected. As stated by Paton (1987), the use of both primary and secondary materials in research is beneficial since it improves reliability through comparison of both theoretical information and real information collected from the ground. Other than adopting a simple questionnaire and distributing it to the respondents, the researcher felt that conducting verbal interview would yield more information since interviews are able to communicate intrinsic messages that may not be captured on paper. Such may include emotions and other vital messages conveyed through facial expressions, gestures and body signs. The information obtained from the interviews was then analyzed as will be shown in latter part of the study.

Secondary data was sourced primarily from existing documents and literature on the prevalence of female delinquency. Considering that the trend of female delinquency appears similar across many states, causal factors obtained from literature were generalized to represent the specific areas under study. The literature materials, theoretically, are very crucial since they correlate past studies and data and assist in making meaning of primary data.  In addition, information available from the existing literature was important in guiding the researcher in the kind of questions that would collect relevant information on the area under study.

Sample population
In this research, the number of respondents was adopted on a platform of availability and ease of access. The researcher targeted to use twelve respondents who could provide relevant information on female delinquency. As such, the respondents were sampled to include
Two young girls recently released from a correction facility
Two officers from the Justice Department handling gender and crimes analysis
Two parents whose girls have been arrested at least once in the last five years
 Two grade 9-12 teachers
Two religious leaders
Two officers working with non-governmental agencies advocating for solutions to juvenile female delinquency issues in the United States.

To ensure fair representation and with the comparative stance of this study, half of each category of respondents were drawn from one of the two broad areas under study, that is, the Washington Metropolitan Area and the two comparative areas, Florida and Baltimore. The respondents sampling, though not exhaustive, was deemed as knowledgeable and experienced in the area of female delinquency and as such, their responses would be rated as reliable for this study. The responses obtained were backed up by existing literature and analyzed as will be shown later in the study.

Findings and Discussion of Quantitative data
In this section, an analysis is done on the data collected guided by the aims and research questions identified earlier in the study.

Study Findings on the Primary data- Quantitative Data Analysis

Personal Details of Respondents
The personal details of the respondents chosen for the interview were collected including their gender, the duration they had been involved in female delinquency issues as well as their educational background. It was assumed in this study that appropriate education level would be crucial in helping the respondents to articulate the research questions appropriately.

Table 1 Respondents Personal Details
Personal Details of RespondentsFrequencyPercentage ()GenderMale650Female650Educational QualificationMasters Degree and above216.7Undergraduate433.3Diploma level and other qualifications650Number of years in Female delinquency Issues1-3 years541.74 years and above758.3The personal details of the respondents show that an equal gender representation was chosen for the study. In regard to their educational qualifications, 50 had at least an undergraduate qualification while the rest had diploma and other qualifications. As such, their explanations and understanding of the topic would not be biased by low literacy. Their experience in female delinquency issues was relatively reliable as a majority (over 58) had more than four years experience in the issue.

Data 2 Analysis
All the respondents were interviewed using similar questions based on the topic. All the responses were summarized and tabulated as shown in the tables below

Table 2 Prevalence of female delinquency
The first question required the respondents to evaluate the notion that female delinquency was increasing at a higher rate than that of their male counterparts. The expected response was either yes or no and the results were tabulated as follows

Table 2 prevalence of Female delinquency

ResponseFrequencyYes975No325As shown above, 75 of the respondents thought that delinquency among girls was increasing at a higher rate than that of boys. Among the 25 who thought that it was a statistical misrepresentation, one of their significant arguments was that the existing statistics are wrong since very little information was available in the past and as such, any comparison would not reflect factual information on the ground. For those who affirmed the percentages, one fundamental argument was that an increasingly large number of girls are faced with more psycho-social problems than in the past which makes them vulnerable to engage in delinquent activities. In addition, the culture of clubbing among many young people had encouraged girls to join peers who eventually lure them to crime activities, both in groups or as individuals. In addition, the affirmative argued that the percentages are on the rise due to an apparent neglect of religious affiliations among many youths. In one argument, one respondent claimed that more girls than boys were traditionally affiliated to religious organizations in the past. As such, a drop in religious affiliation had more impact on girls than on boys, and this could be the reason why statistics showed relative increase in girls in crime than boys.

Data 3 Analysis
The next question aimed to establish the causes of female delinquency from the respondents perspectives. To aid in a focused suggestion, the researcher had prepared the theoretically acknowledged causes. The respondents were hence required to affirm the theoretical claims by identifying the causes into two categories. Category (a) would identify the causes that were believed to be most influential while category (b) identified other periphery causes that could, in conjunction with others, increase the tendency to female delinquency. The results for the two categories are tabulated as shown below

Table 3 Category a Most influential causes of female delinquency
CauseYesNoPoverty102Sexual Maltreatment120Peers influence84Drugs and substance abuse120Unstable families93Over criminalization ( small crimes criminalized)66Looking for excitement66Poor Religious values84Low school Performance84The data above has been analyzed in an excel graph for ease of interpretation as shown below
Graph 1 main causes of female delinquency

As shown above, a majority of the factors identified theoretically were identified as being primary in leading girls to delinquency. The most outstanding factors that received an affirmative response were early sexual maltreatment and abuse of drugs and other substances. Other factors such as school performance, peer influence, over-criminalization and the adventure for youthful excitement were also identified as primary causes although at varying degrees. Some of the responses that opposed factors such as low school performance by some of the respondents were that a majority of other girls who are not delinquent performed poorly in schools yet did not engage in juvenile delinquency. An outstanding observation among these factors was that they reinforced each other. For instance, a girl who came from a poor family, performed poorly in school and had little religious affiliation was most likely to become delinquent. As such, a fundamental approach in looking for intervention measures would be by eliminating those factors that could be easily eliminated. For instance, guiding a girl from bad company and encouraging her to work hard in school could reverse the trend towards delinquency.

Data 4 Analysis Peripheral Causes of Female Delinquency
The next part of the interview aimed at establishing whether there existed factors that were weak to influence delinquency but could reinforce other factors which influence girls to become delinquent. The study had identified several of such and the respondents views were tabulated as follows

Table 4 Peripheral Causes
CauseYesNoNeighborhood84Ethnicity48Police Discrimination66Affluence210Early romance exposure84An analysis of the above data in an excel construct yields the graph shown below

The peripheral causes identified above are those that were identified as being secondary their influence depended on the existence of other strong primary factors. As shown in the graph, neighborhood and early exposure to sexual romance were identified as strong correlates of leading girls to delinquency. Other factors that had been identified in literature materials such as ethnicity, affluence and apparent police discrimination against some groups were rated as averagely influential in female delinquency.

Discussion of Qualitative data from the interviews
As mentioned above, the study utilized an interview method which was aimed at increasing the flexibility of the responses obtained from the respondents. As such, there were those responses that could not be quantified numerically though they were crucial in analyzing the issue of juvenile female delinquency. Some of the qualitative responses that were identified in both the primary and secondary research included

Most respondents identified the family as the major contributing factor to female delinquency. Girls from stable and caring families were less likely to get involved in crime although some respondents felt that some pampered youths from stable families contributed to formation of social groups (gangs) that later engaged in criminal activities.

Girls are less likely to organize intentional crimes. Their involvement is largely unplanned and occurs emotionally either through peer influence or abuse of substance and drugs.

Some respondents identified girls as being more of victims than perpetrators of delinquent acts. Their involvement in peer groups left them susceptible to great influence and as such, most of their involvement was unintentional.

The issue of girls transition in puberty was identified as a predisposing factor other than a primary factor. The biological change that occurs to girls during this period increases their susceptibility to emotional attachment to groups or individuals who may easily lure them to crime or to gangs.

Conclusion
The aim of this study was to analyze the issue of juvenile female delinquency in its broad aspects. Based on the literature search and primary data obtained in the study, it is the conclusions of this study that female delinquency is a rising problem, both in the areas considered in the study and in the wider global society. As such, it ought to be given more consideration than the one it has received in the past.  Secondly, there is universality in the primary causes of female juvenile delinquency. Core in the causes include dysfunctional families, early childhood abuse (physical, sexual and mental), poor religious affiliation, poor performance in schools and excessive affluence. In addition, peripheral causes such as neighborhood, ethnicity and youthful adventure have also been identified as contributing to female delinquency. In this study, it has been noted that the challenges that faces girls are more pronounced than those of their counterpart boys especially in their transition to adolescence. For this reason, intervention measures that can assist such girls from getting into crime ought to be structured in such a manner that they would address these concerns. Lastly, the training of fortitude, resilience and firmness is crucial and has been noted to keep girls off from engaging in delinquency despite the prevalence of causal factors.

Recommendations for intervention measures
The data obtained in this study, though collected from respondents in a specific area is a wide representation of the issues of juvenile female delinquency in the wide United States. Based on the analysis obtained above, it is the recommendations of this study that effective intervention measures can be obtained through

More efforts in studying female juvenile delinquency to alert the relevant authorities on the size of the issue.

The society to take pro-active roles in stepping in for destitute girls such as orphans, victimized children and those from dysfunctional families.

Inclusion of positive content in the early schools educational content aimed at encouraging young girls in distress.

Provision of safe recreation activities, both by families and schools to discourage young girls from seeking entertainment in hazardous zones.

Encourage strong moral and religious values- This study indicates that young girls with strong religious foundation and affiliation are less likely to engage in delinquent activities.

Cocaine is a white or colorless crystalline alkaloid that is extracted from the leaves of coca plant. Although it is sometimes used as a medicinal compound, it has widely been abused because of its stimulating and euphoric effects. Cocaine occurs either in the form of crack cocaine or cocaine hydrochloride. Both the two forms of cocaine have been abused in the United States and their uses have been criminalized.

The abusers of the drug often snort the powdered hydrochloride form of cocaine or dissolve the drug in water and inject themselves intravenously. The street name given to another form of cocaine is crack which is processed to yield a rock crystal that when heated produces the vapors which can be smoked. The name crack refers to the type of sound produced when the rock crystal is heated (Platt, 2005). This sound produced is of crackling nature hence the name crack cocaine.

The psychoactive and physiological effects of cocaine share significant similarities and it does not matter if the form of cocaine taken is crack cocaine or cocaine hydrochloride. However, some slight variations range from the duration, immediacy and magnitude of the effect of the form of cocaine taken.

The frequency as well as the amount of the drug forms smoked or injected also has some variations in the psychoactive and physiological difference in the effects.

The form of cocaine used does not have any important variation in the general effects in humans.
Cocaine was prohibited in the United States in the wake of the 20th century. Journalists and writers used the terms Cocainized Niggers and Negro Cocaine Fiends to zoom the sales which caused a nationwide panic about the raping of the white women by the black men who were high on using cocaine (Elbert, 2010). Consequently, the 1914 saw the enacting of the Harrison Act that required all the cocaine and opiate sellers to acquire a license. However, these licenses were only distributed among the white people and the blacks were never allowed to have the licenses.

The Harrison Act, 1914 was originally intended to require persons to have paper trails of all drug transactions between the drug stores, doctors and patients. However, this changed afterwards and the Act became a prohibitive law. This shows how the wording of the law was rather vague since the Harrison Act, 1914 was initially intended to be a mechanism for revenue tracking which required opiate prescriptions.

The penalties that are induced on the use of the two forms of cocaine vary. For instance, the federal guidelines for sentencing the possession of cocaine are a hundred times more than those for crack cocaine. Therefore, in triggering compulsory minimum penalties is believed to be excessive. Crack cocaine has been associated with crimes to a greater level than the cocaine hydrochloride form. However, majority of these crimes have been associated with the cocaine addiction and not the form of cocaine used.

Racial Disparity in Cocaine Sentencing
Apart from war on terrorism and nuclear war, the attitude of Americans on drugs has also become an important problem that the country faces today. Particularly, the problem of racial disparity on cocaine sentencing has increasingly drawn a debate and caused a growing controversy. In the early 1980s the politicians and the United States at large entered into an important era that accorded much focus on the problem of drugs.

In 1984, the Congress passed the Comprehensive Crime Control Act (CCCA) that gave guidelines on how federal defendants were supposed to be sentenced. In the recent past, the amendments to the CCCA provided for the 1001 ratio of enhancement between crack cocaine and powder cocaine.

The October 17th, 1986 became the first time racial disparity was shown in the sentencing of cocaine possession (Keith, 1999).  Crack cocaine is mainly used by blacks while the powdered cocaine is used among the whites. The minimum imprisonment period for crack cocaine was set to be 10 years with the possession of 50 grams while the minimum imprisonment period for powdered cocaine was set to be 10 years for 50 grams. The rationale here was that it was a more criminal offense to possess crack cocaine than powdered cocaine shining light into racial disparity among the blacks and the whites.

In this direction, the war on drugs has been perceived as the war on blacks. This observation has been made from the reports that there are more black males in prisons than there are in colleges. The crack cocaine provisions have clearly been seen as unconstitutional and violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fifth Amendment to the US Act.

Although crack elicits more immediate addiction responses than powdered cocaine, the rationale for imposing punishment on its users 100 times more than the users of powdered cocaine does not come out clear. It is the question of racial disparity that is presented in the differences in sentencing. It should be noted that sentencing has to be standard. If too short sentencing is provided, it may cause more crime to ensue and if too long sentences are provided, it may as well lead to reinforcing criminal tendencies of defendants. The fight on erasing the disparity in cocaine sentencing has gained significant success and is expected to end the controversial ratio of 100 1 disparity between the sentencing of crack and powder cocaine.

The legacy moment of Alexander as a County judge as Hennepin started in 1990 with her strong ruling to dismiss the charges against the five men who were brought forward concerning the possession of crack cocaine. Alexander ruled that the laws of Minnesota that differentiated between the two forms of cocaine, crack and powder were discriminatory (Gross, 2001).  At her time during the 1990s, crack possession which was the drug of choice among the blacks, led to the sentencing of a number of individuals for 20 years. The disparity was seen in the difference in the sentencing of powder cocaine possession of five years. The suggested reason for this difference was racism since powder cocaine was the drug of choice among the whites.

Alexanders arguments were validated by the Supreme Court at Minnesota and the state legislature positively responded to her claims.

The US Sentencing Commission validated the decisions by Alexander in 1990 that voted to lighten the sentences that were imposed on the possession of crack cocaine in the federal system. This effort was made to remind the courts should not be sensitive in defending the whites. Alexander refused to be elated about the Supreme Courts ruling identifying that the pace at which justice was moving was much slower and called for some action.

Alexander felt that she was lucky not to become a federal judge since the federal judiciary is largely bound to follow the guidelines of sentencing that seem to be mediated by the regional politics.

The Office of the National Drug Control Policy actions continues to increasingly draw a controversy on the rhetoric of a change away from the principal enforcement-based reactions to the illegitimate cocaine abuse. The compulsory minimum penalty for crack cocaine is a hundred times more severe compared to the penalties for powder cocaine. Despite the Congress having knowledge of this, it has failed to change these sentences. Although the Sentencing Commission and other commissions have sent recommendations to the Congress, the actions have not been implemented and these differences in sentencing of crack cocaine and powder cocaine

It is a great contrast that it takes only 5 grams of crack compared to 500 grams of crack to warrant a drug user individual a 5 year compulsory minimum sentence. In another equivalent, 50 grams of crack is enough to warrant a person a compulsory minimum sentence of ten years. Contrary to powder cocaine, 500 grams of the powder is the agreed quantity that can warrant a person a ten-year compulsory minimum sentencing. These differences have been shown in a number of cases in the United States.

An example of some of the cases that have been decided without justice was the case that involved Calvin Williams in the year 2005. Williams pleaded guilty to one count of conspiracy in distributing crack cocaine breaching the United States Constitution, 21 (846) and 18 (2) pursuant to the agreement in a plea. The district court after granting Williams a motion for downward departure, it sentenced him for 235 months imprisonments that were based upon his own status as a career offender. Afterwards, Williamson appealed to the court and was remanded for the re-sentencing pursuant to the United States v. Booker in 2005.

While on remand, Williams was sentenced to 144 months imprisonment by the district court according to the agreement on the plea. This duration was increased after subsequent considerations that Williams was a career offender. Although Williams filed a motion to modify his sentence according to the constitution, the district court did not respond to such a claim for evidentially hearing.

Another case that showed disparity in sentencing which involved the decision of the court on powder cocaine and crack was the United States v. Hamilton, 2006. The case was decided on the 30th March, 2006. The court found that the chemical compound contained in crack and powder was the same both in structure and effect. The compound that was under investigation was C17H21NO4 which was found to be common in both forms. The compound is naturally present in the leaves of coca which are processed and imported into the United States. The processing of the compound takes place by the dissolution of cocaine base in a water and hydrochloric acid. This then creates cocaine hydrochloride salt, C17H22ClNO4 also known as powder cocaine. The powdered cocaine can be converted into the base form by heating it with a mixture of water and baking soda.

The court declared that there were no major differences between crack and powder cocaine using the results that were obtained from experiments that were carried out by the governments forensic chemists. The forensic chemists found out that there were no major differences between crack and powdered cocaine in terms of chemical composition and all had a potential to cause the same effects in the psychology and physiology of humans. (Di Iulo, 2004)

The powder could easily be converted back to the original base compound through chemical reactions.

Despite of the courts ruling in the United States v. Hamilton, 2006, there is a great disparity in sentence fashioning that is imposed on the defendants who are found guilty of the offenses associated with crack cocaine and those offenses related to powder cocaine. For instance, there is a commonly known ratio of 1001 that refers to the ratio of powder to crack pursuant to which a defendant who possesses a certain quantity of crack will be given the similar compulsory minimum sentence like the defendants possessing 100 times powder cocaine amount.  The adopted guidelines have integrated the ratios such that the 5kg of powder cocaine is perceived equivalent to the 50g of crack cocaine they are scored at similar level.

Rationales of the Disparity in Sentencing
The disparity of sentencing has received wide criticism and the United States Sentencing Commission has itself repeatedly suggested that it is more appropriate to have a ratio of 201. There are a number of rationales that have been reported to be based on weak grounds by the Sentencing Commission. These rationales that were initially relied upon to generate the disparity between the crack and powder cocaine have been reported to be unsupportable.

These Sentencing Commission claims that the harms that are associated with crack do not give good reason for any substantially ruthless treatment (Nicole, 2007). The second claim to disapprove the rationale of the disparities in sentencing in crack and powder cocaine is that the increased addictiveness to crack does not result from any pharmacological difference between crack and powder.

The development of addiction has instead been observed to be caused by the differing manner in which the two forms of drugs are administered and used. Crack is widely used by the drug users which make it to cause more addiction than powder cocaine. Equally, the intravenous administration of crack makes it to cause addictions more easily than powder cocaine.

The Sentencing Commission also identifies that the harms that are connected to crack are not as very severe as they were initially feared and are no more serious than the harms that result from powder cocaine exposure. The fourth observation by the Sentencing Commission is the larger numbers of the defendants who are subject to the increased penalties do not fit the mold of high-level or serious traffickers that the Congress intended to target when it was initially establishing the penalties. Contrary to the intention of the Congress, majority of the offenders of crack cocaine who receive the harsh penalties are low-level offenders.

The Sentencing Commission also identifies the crack cocaine as the only drug that has such harsh penalties imposed on low-level offenders and finally, the sixth claim by the commission proposes that the high penalties particularly for small amounts of crack cocaine have been seen to divert the federal resources thus avoiding the high-level traffickers and directing the resources and energy to low-level drug dealers (Tonry, 1995). In general the Sentencing Commission suggests that the injustice which exist in the sentencing of defendants should be done with justice and respect for equality. Lastly, the disparity in crack versus powder brings about a disparate impact along the lines of racism with the black offenders getting harsher penalties than their white counterparts.

In the year 2007, the Brenna Center for Justice at New York University School of Law gave a report which was a product of the meeting that was hosted by the Brennan Center and the National Institute for Law and Equity, NILE. In the report, the issue of the effects of racial disparities in the sentencing of communities, long-term incarceration and the public confidence on the enforcement of the public law were discussed.

On November 1st 2007, the new amendments to the guidelines were set in place and the sentencing ranges were lowered for crack crimes by about two levels. On December 11, 2007, the US Sentencing Commission passed a decision to make the decrease in sentencing retroactive. The September 9th, 2008, the district court ruled out that the reduction on sentencing does not apply to career offenders but for other cocaine possessions (Jeralyn, 2010).

The discriminatory and arbitral disparity between crack cocaine and cocaine powder implicates the United States constitution. This observation is made by the argument that unless someone assumes that the penalties for powder cocaine are too low, then the far-reaching crack penalties are at the odds corresponding with the offense seriousness. The lack of a logical rationale for the disparities of crack sentencing and disproportionate impact on one disfavored race enhances the abuse of law and suggests that the preceding sentences are all done unjustly (Sher, 2003).

There are three forms of arguments or rationale used for criminalization of cocaine. These arguments are paternalistic, protective and perfectionist arguments.

The paternalistic argument is based on the fact that the nature of the detrimental effects a drug has and which the users of the drug risk is the function of the drugs which they use. The most important effect of cocaine and especially the crack cocaine is the addictive nature of the drug. Crack is more addictive than any form of cocaine hence the heavy sentence given.

The protective argument is based on the harm the drug may cause to other people apart from the actual user. The use of cocaine causes the strangers to be harmed by making collisions and shooting as well as other problems to which the overly aggressive and the impaired are always exposed to them (Wisotsky, 1996). The drug deprives the family of the peace that can enable the family to live with cohesiveness.

The children may be subjected to neglect and continue to difficulties. The third argument is the perfectionist reasoning. This argument holds that there is a broad consensus about the many factors which determine the good and evil.

Other people hold that it is illegal when to find people stumbling through lives with a distorted and blurred view of the reality

Efforts to Decriminalize Cocaine Possession
The Attorney General Eric Holder has strongly defended the use of cocaine and allied substances for medical purposes. Holder held a senior position as a legal advisor to President-Elect Obama. For instance, he defended that the Justice Department should not raid the medical marijuana clubs that are legally established under the state law. The declaration fulfils the president Barrack Obamas campaign promises and marks a significant shift from the earlier Bush administration that criminalized the use of cocaine even for medical reasons.

While it was noted that the Drug Enforcement Administration still carried out such raids, Holder defended that the raids were not part of the American policy that would be embraced in the future. Despite hostility in the legalization of medical uses of cocaine and marijuana, the movement for decriminalization has been growing for decades and it is expected that the Obama administration will have lots of changes.

In another effort, the Attorney General directed the federal prosecutors to stop pursuing cases that involved medical marijuana patients paving way for the decriminalization of cocaine that is used for medical reasons. This has been seen as a broad shift in policy that a number of drug reform advocates have interpreted as the initial stage in the decriminalization of cocaine and marijuana medical uses. This marked the changes through which the efforts would be heightened against the fight to make medical use of cocaine acceptable.

The Council on Crime and Justice is non- partisan, independent and a non-profit organ that has made possible the provision of innovative solutions and leadership to the social and criminal issues of concern related to justice in the state of Minnesota for over five decades.

At the height of a growing controversy in disparities in sentencing involved in two substances, cocaine and crack, the Council through its advocacy roles have become imperative in the establishing policy and system change. The advocacy is mainly focused on identification of the collateral statutory effects and the further quantification of the impacts of all the arrests.

The initiative of the Council on Crime and Justice is aimed at the helping the offenders to succeed and thus reduce the rate of recidivism among the cocaine and other related drug offenders. The efforts of the Council on Crime and Justice will also address the disparities in the sentencing of the offenders in terms of color as the sentencing show some racial differences. The Council on Crime and Justice made a step to accord Judge Pamela Alexander a high-profile platform which provided a chance to be outspoken concerning her apprehensions. In the current status, the council has carried enormous research on the bare truth of disparities based on racism particularly in the state of Minnesota.

It been observed that in recent years, a number of white prisoners who have been convicted of methamphetamine-related offenses has gone high. However, over the last 18 years, the major drugs-related offenses leading the offenders in prison were caused by cocaine and crack. The Council on Crime and Justice identifies that majority of the offenders who have been sent to prison due to crack and cocaine was among the minority group members. For instance, in 2006 alone, up to 90 percent of the prisoners who were sentenced for the offenses related to crack were members of the minority. This percentage of the crack offenses was higher than the 71 percent which was the percentage of cocaine prisoners (Council on Crime and Justice, 2010). The statistics from the Council on Crime and Justice clearly indicate the disparity that exists between the sentencing of crack and cocaine prisoners.

The council also identifies that there have been severe penalties and aggressive law enforcement for drug offenses with the majority of the arrested individuals, convicted or imprisoned for such crimes being non-whites. It has also been noted that huge numbers of disadvantaged blacks are being imprisoned and serve long sentences in jails to reduce the attractions and drug use among the non-whites. The council also found out that Minnesota had the most unfair judgment when the Minnesota sentencing laws were compared with other states. In Minnesota Sentencing Guidelines Commission report, it was found that 10g transaction in crack or powder cocaine triggered a 30-year punishment in Minnesota. Other states have higher threshold amounts of cocaine. For instance, Illinois allows up to 900grams while Iowas allows 5kg.

In general, the criminalization of cocaine has taken different direction since it was first extracted from cocoa leaves. While the use of cocaine is illegal and subject to his prosecution, crack cocaine has been heightened. This uncalled for expectations have made the punishment to be more severe in crack cocaine than compared to powder cocaine. The Sentencing Commission has created a new hope for the road to justice. In addition, the Obama administration is expected to cause great transformations in the perception of the two substances, the powder cocaine and crack cocaine. In the future, the existing disparity will be a story to talk about and sanity in the judicial procedures will have a place among the judges.

A juvenile is a person who was less than 17 years old but more than 10 years old when he or she committed an act defined as a delinquent act or a conduct in need of supervision. This is an act if committed by an adult could lead to imprisonment. A conduct in need of supervision (CINS) is a conduct that if committed by an adult could result in a fine.

Juvenile Court Characteristics in Texas
According to Roberts (2004), when a juvenile has been found to have committed a CINS or delinquent conduct, heshe is adjudicated. Texas juvenile board is in charge of the juvenile justice operations. Its made up of district court judges and country court judges. The juvenile board decides which court that will be used as a juvenile court in the county. There are different courts that are involved district, Constitutional County or county courts.

District courts are courts of general jurisdiction constitutional county courts have concurrent authority with district judges and county courts may have concurrent authority with district judges or it may vary according to the statute that formed them (Zimring, 2005).

When a juvenile has been found with an adjudicated conduct, the following is done the person can be placed on probation, sent to the Texas youth commission (TYC) with an indeterminable sentence. However, this can only be done in victims of felony offences or it can be referred to the TYC with a determined sentence for certain offences. Juveniles put on probation and not sent to the TYC are supposed to be released by the time they turn 18. When sent to the TYC with an indeterminate verdict, the victims are released by the time they turn 19 and when sent to the TYC with a determined sentence, they can be transferred to an adult court depending on their behavior while in the TYC programs (Myers, 2001).

If the juvenile is put on probation, the judge orders the juvenile to live with a responsible adult and gives the conditions that are to be followed. The conditions may range from a curfew, undergoing counseling or the juvenile may be required to attend a school. If the conditions given are not kept by the adult, the court may order the adult responsible to pay a fine or be imprisoned (Feld, 1999).

Conclusion
Many juveniles are found to commit crimes that if they were adults, they might have been convicted or fined. To deal with such cases, the Texas courts have come up with modes of dealing the culprits.

The development of crime scripts of various forms may assist a great deal in the prevention of situational crime.  Movies on crime can be designed with appropriate setting and plot.  Thanks to the script developers for availing crime scripts reflecting the current state of crime that can be used effectively to reduce crime from the society.  The most challenging part is how to plan development of the resolution and abstractions processes required to initiate the intervention processes by use of crime scripts of different situational settings to correct the crime rate.  This is because the crime scripts exist in web-like form and this will require a great deal of time.

However, if a nation is sure to spend good time or energy to curb situational crime and achieve the objective, then it is worth considering the investment.  The way forward towards striking a balance between the resolution and abstraction is to employ well trained personnel on crime intervention and highly knowledgeable in crime script development to hasten the process.

Crime scripts need to be tailored to age groups and social settings to provide moral lessons more than terror and fun. Adult crime scripts need to be provided in the prisons and social places with great emphasis on the terrorizing effects on situational crimes like sexual assault, murder, suicide, prison violence among other.

In conclusion, crime prevention education must be offered to prison administrators and security officers. Counterproductive intervention of situational crime should be avoided.

Its a normal behaviour for human beings to set goals and work hard towards achieving them. In some cases however, there are possibilities that the goals we set are unrealistic and the chances of achieving them are almost nil. In most cases, thoughts and behaviours of a perfectionist are very rigid and they dont give themselves an allowance of making a human error. Unfortunately, these people set these goals for themselves and people close to them. When they strive and fail to meet their goal, they end up loosing self esteem and feeling depressed.

Therefore, a realist goal can be likened to the level of performance and achievement, and the skills and abilities a person possesses. If theres a goal we have set and yet we lack the necessary ability, first we must focus on attaining those abilities. If we keep striving to achieve the goal yet we lack the ability, it will be a case of self deception that can lead to disillusionment.

Durkheim says that a person cannot be happy or even exist if his needs are not sufficiently proportional to his means. This means that if he lacks the necessary means, there will be friction and he will function painfully. Although aspirations are limitless, unobtainable aspiration can result to deviance or even suicide if they are not regulated to some extent. They can also lead to addiction or rebellion with a person trying to change the socially accepted norms when his goals are not attained.

The importance of the role played by law enforcers in this country can never be overemphasized. Police officers have for a long tine remained very committed to their work and have been the only major source of protection for many people and their property. Owing to the very nature of the work of police officers, it is important that they work closely with the people whom they serve. Without needing to preempt anything, this has not been the case in certain instances when police officers have had to use too much force to deal with civilians (Coady  James, 2000). While it is acceptable that the use of excessive force by police officers is sometimes provoked by civilians determined to break the law, many cases have been reported where there has been use of too much force and even violence on civilians who posed no threat to the police officers.

Criminal justice is paramount and it is the duty of the law enforcement agencies and the civilians to work towards ensuring that it is upheld at all times (Baker, 2009). This will not be possible if the very people who are required to maintain law and order engage in breaking it instead. In order, therefore, for law and order to be maintained and therefore criminal justice upheld, police officers must use their powers well and within the provisions of the law. An understanding of the prevalence rate of violent handling of suspects andor their treatment with too much force will go a long way in improving criminal justice practices in the country.

Police Brutality and the Law
The Australian law provides for police officers to act in a manner that does not in any way infringe on the rights of the citizens who they arrest or suspect to be law offenders. As such, although there are instances when the police officers can be allowed to use more force than normal, it is always the suspects legal and constitutional right to be treated as innocent unless one is proved guilty. Therefore, using too much force contradicts this very provision because an innocent Australian ought not to be forcibly handled. Yet such instances have continued to be reported and even witnessed all over the country. According to Baker (2009), there are incidences when the police officers themselves have accepted and confirmed that they do use more force than it is necessary because of different reasons. They just seem to agree with the public assertion that the police are sometimes the greatest law offenders that there can ever be (Baker, 2009).

Writing in the article Police confirmation of use of force in Australia To be or not to be carried in the Journal of Crime, Law and Social Change,  Baker uses a variety of informational sources to draw many conclusions regarding the prevalence of instances of use of excessive force by police officers (Baker, 2009). The most common trend is that where officers have been known or have admitted to having been forced to use force because they are under compulsion to perform and to produce quick results. Quoting from John Avery, a former police inspector who wrote Police Force or Service, baker insists that owing to the high frequency at which the police force is using force, it has become very difficult to uphold law and order in all the states of the country as fighting crime is largely dependent on the ability of the police or law enforcers to collaborate with the civilians (Baker, 2009). Such collaboration is pegged on the existence of cordial relations between the two sides but since the police is a literal force and not a service, the public has shied away from them. In fact, the police are more of enemies than are associates of the people. Baker makes the future state of being of criminal justice tenable by offering to point out the areas that are in need of addressing. Because of his widespread use of both secondary and primary sources of data including interviews from police officers themselves, his conclusion that most officers act on impulse means that the prevalence rate of the incidents is high enough (Baker, 2009).

In yet another pointer to the high prevalence rate of police brutal incidences, Coady  James (2000) are of the view that the pretext that police officers have tended to use often to justify their extra-judicial acts has been that there has been a failure by suspects to comply with them. In a collection of articles on the issue published in the book Violence and police culture, it emerges that Australian police are increasingly becoming less friendly and this is jeopardizing not only the fight against crime in the country but also the efforts to improve criminal justice (Coady  James, 2000). According to the authors, there are suggestions for legal actions to be taken against such officers given the increased rate at which they are misusing their powers. Citing statutory and court proceedings of the past, they recommend tough actions against officers found to be breaking the law by meting violence on suspects (Coady  James, 2000). That legal institutions are generally weak has made the fight against the brutality of police more difficult. Sometimes, the force has been required to investigate claims of brutality against its own officers. This is a very ineffective way of handling the matter (Coady  James, 2000).

Conclusion
The use of violence by police officers has become a very common trend in Australia, a fact that is being attributed to a number of factors such as laxity in disciplinary measures against the officers found guilty, and pressure to produce quick results and please commanding officers or seniors. That there is a very high incidence of such cases is evidenced by the constant commentary on the subject and the great interest that the subject has generated. Because the fight against crime cannot succeed without there being cooperation between police officers and citizens, it is critical that such cases of use of violence when apprehending suspects or too much force to break up demonstrations and arrest suspects are stopped. This will further help improve criminal justice in the country.

Crime has been part of human civilization. Crime committed by children under the adult age is often described by the law as juvenile delinquency. Sociologists have sought to come up with various theories that would help shed light into what motivates children and youths to engage themselves into criminal activities. Different factors motivate children participation in crime although the underlying factors affecting them seem to converge at some point irrespective of their race or gender.

Delinquency is the behavior of children and adolescents which can be regarded as criminal in case they are charged under adult law. Delinquent behavior may also be simply defined as problematic behavior that is displayed by minors (Gottfredson, 2001, p 4). The behavior becomes problematic when the minors display anti social behaviors and go against laid down rules and regulations. The age definition of minors varies from state to state. Some states have put it at 14 years while others classify the group as lying between 14-20 years. Nonetheless, statistics show a high rate of occurrence of pretty offences like truancy to serious crimes in these groups ranging from gang activity, drug peddling, rape and robbery. If committed by minors, they are regarded as juvenile delinquency (West, 1982, p, 99). Various psychological, social and economic factors contribute to the transformation of innocent children and teenagers to criminal offences.

Regardless of the criminality of a juvenile, there are some factors that influence delinquency. These factors are present in almost all cases where juvenile delinquency is observed. Family composition is one of these factors. Its clear that many juvenile delinquents learn their behavior from family situations they are exposed to (Martin, 2005, p 3). Sociologists have observed a common trend where most delinquents come from disorganized family situations. If a family for instance has a history of violence the young ones are likely to copy and replicate it in their own lives. Broken or dysfunction families influenced childrens learning and they were bound to internalize everything they saw happening and practicing it as well.

Social class is another factor that does contribute to juvenile delinquency. Though a little controversial, the type of social class of the child may also influence himher to engage in crime. Some scholars too suggest that there are regular patterns of delinquency in high poverty-level neighborhoods. In the past children born in poorer classes were thought to be more delinquent than those born into affluent classes (Martin, 2005, p3).

Finally, the education experiences that a child undergoes, does have huge influence on the way he or she views crime. Lack of education or little education is thought to be a primary cause of delinquent acts among children and young adults (Martin, 2005, p3). At the same time education may enlighten children and contribute to criminal ideas. This paper is trying to analyze two cases of juvenile delinquencies based on some sociological theories.

Justin
Both psychological and sociological theories are better placed to answer the above questions regarding young Justins case. Robert Mertons strain theory seeks to explain the relationship between goals people set to achieve and the means they use to achieve them. This theory was build on the basis of Emile Durkheims Anomie theory. Emile sought to describe a situating where there was complete breakdown of norms in the society leading to a situation of lawlessness (Taboni, Mongardini  Merton, 1998, p 11). According to Merton the society encourages members to use legitimate means to achieve goals. Goals in the American society may include wealth, comfort and high social status while acceptable means include hard work, education and savings for example (Martin, 2005, p3). Due to the inequalities that exist in society, not all members are able to attain the goals legally hence they resort to criminal or illegitimate ways to attain them. There is an anomie situation when members of the society cannot attain their goals through legitimate means (Welsh  Siegel, 2006, p.67).The inability for the members of the society to attain the goals easily create social strains, hence the development of strain theory. They can be young children like Justin or adults who become frustrated by the obstacles that prevent them from achieving success. Justin comes from poor family that barely affords basic necessities. There is an apparent feeling in Justins family that the society or American system has denied them the necessary means through which they should achieve the comforts every American is entitled to. Therefore he has resorted to crime to achieve the goals that he and his family desire.

The Chicago School of Sociology formulated the theory of ecology where various urban places were mapped and studied. Some urban places had higher rates of crime than others. Inner cities, although had a mixture of all ethnicities, were normally dominated by African Americans. Government and institutions exclusion of the particular group and unfair treatment cannot be discounted as a factor contributing to the miserable life of the African Americans families thus trickling the negative effects to the youths. The sociologists concluded that structural conditions like overcrowding, poor transport, poor schools, poor sanitation and children born out of wedlock were the main courses of crime in these areas (Martin, 2005, p 24). These crimes were committed by both minors like Justin and adults alike. Justin is African American living in the inner city ghettos with the conditions reminiscent of the ones described above. Justin comes from a single parent enduring financial difficulties and means to feed his family poverty reflection. These conditions push him to engage in the criminal activities probably unwillingly at the early age.

Psychologically, Justins case can be explained by the conditional learning theories formulated by Ivan Pavlov. The theory focuses on change in behavior of people and responses to stimuli (Morrow  Tracey, 2006, p, 34). Pavlov used the dog and bell experiment to prove that environmental conditions do stimulate the actions and repetition of the actions is based on reward and punishment.  According to the theory, conditions that one goes through life act as stimuli to the behavior that a person exhibits. Environmental stimuli can reward or punish someone. In the case where an offender is rewarded, heshe is likely to continue till the law catches up with himher. Punishment is likely to reinforce the idea that crime is not productive and that it should never be engaged in. Justin comes from a poor family that does not have resources to meet their financial and basic needs. The conditions under which they live push him to seek the comforts in whatever way possible. When he steals and engages in gang activity, he gets the money needed to supplement his family income. That is a reward that he has got after being pushed by the poverty surround him. However when he is arrested negative stimuli is applied and he is conditioned to regard crime as antisocial.

Abby
Abby has been regularly abused by her step father and she runs away to seek refuge in a safer place of alcohol and drugs. Her case can be explained using the psychoanalytic theory that was developed by Sigmund Freud. According to Freud, every person is born with three personality types the Id the Ego and the Super ego (Martin, 2005, p 3). The Id drives all the selfish desires with no regard for other people. Its especially dominant in infants. The Ego suppresses the selfish drives of the Id and injects some level of rationality into the person. The super ego is the guiding conscience that always analyses the egos choices and determines if they are right or wrong according to personalitys choice definitions (Martin, 2005, p 19). Emotions like guilty and shame is a reflection of the superego (Martin, 2005, p 19).

Abby is clearly going through traumatizing events in her life at an early age. These events are hampering her development and her childhood is clearly dysfunctional. The step father appears to have been abusing her for a long period, probably even before she was thirteen. She is feeling guilty and shameful due to the sexual abuse she goes through and seems there is no one to share her pain with. Traumatizing events in childhood may lead to a child to behaving delinquently. Abbys behavior is as a result of underdeveloped ego and superego. The superego is morally weak and that is why she is acting on primal urges like engaging in drugs and alcohol which is socially unacceptable. She is unable to act outside her own interests.

According to Melanie, (1936) as quoted in Mitchel  Greenberg, (1983, p 133), External reality of a child mirrors a childs instinctive life. The external life that she is exhibiting is a reflection of what she is going through mentally. Safety is what she looking for because her innate feelings are demanding and she goes out to seek for them. Underdevelopment of her ego and super ego has led to uncontrollable expression of the innate feelings. Rationality is clearly lacking in the choices she is making and that may explain why she is engaging in alcohol and drugs as an escapist move affecting her school performance.

Intervention in Justin and Abbys cases
Justin is a bright child who needs to complete his education. Once he is through with college he will be in a better position to work and support himself and the family. The Strain theory was developed in during the time of Great Depression when most American families lost their livelihoods hindering their achievement of societal goals. The economic situation of his family is reminiscent of the Great depression times and clearly hampers their quest to attain the comforts that every family needs. However a minimum wage job in the city may help supplement the family income and help keep Justin out of crime and gang activity. Though it may not fulfill their needs optimally, it will prevent him from going to crime and at least some of the needs that apparently crime provides will be met.

Abby seems on the other hand to be more emotionally affected than Justin. Her traumatizing events have led to a dysfunctional childhood that propels her to act egocentrically resulting to anti-social behavior, which at times may be regarded as criminal. In her case, she will have to be taken to a rehab center where she will undergo vigorous counseling to dissuade her from engaging in drugs. Further, counseling and therapy is needed to try and help her recover from the events that have shaped her life so far. At thirteen, she may be exiting late childhood and her psychological development may not be optimal as it would have been in early childhood. However, she can be helped develop her personality types which will help her make rational social choices that will not be considered delinquent.

Conclusion
No single theory can conclusively explain the causes of Juvenile Delinquency in the various contexts that they occur. Many of the theories explaining crime in sociology have regularly been criticized for lack of empirical evidence or giving a biased argument. However what theories like Strain theory by Merton, Anomie by Durkheims and conditional learning can be combined to supplement each other in their weak areas and effectively address problems like juvenile delinquency.