Criminology

In the world today, there is a need for identification of every person in a way that it will not be confused or rather identical to another person. This can only be offered by the use of fingerprints.  The use of fingerprints can also be termed as the essential explanation or reason as to why we have supplanted other methods of determining the identities of criminals reluctant to acknowledge previous arrests. By definition, a fingerprint happens to be an impression of what is referred to as the friction ridges which are found on all or on some parts of the fingers. This happens to be a raised part of the epidermis on the palm and it consists of one of more connected lines or ridges.
 (fosterfreeman.com, 2010)

The science of identification using fingerprints is known to stand out among all the other forms of forensic science that are in use for a number of reasons. First is that it has served practically all the governments in the world for the past one century through provision of accurate criminal identifications. Over this period of time, at no time have there been two identical fingerprints.
 (Gaensslen, 2007)

Other than this, the science of fingerprints is responsible for establishment of the first forensic professional organization in 1915 and the first professional certification program in the field of forensic science in 1977. It is also the most commonly used method of providing forensic evidence in the world and it is also expanding as the premier method of person identification.
 (Gaensslen, 2007)

Having considered the importance of fingerprints, in the world today, it can therefore be said that the most basic step in the use of fingerprints and perhaps the most critical step is collecting or rather acquiring fingerprint image. The reason is that the methods that are used in collecting this image are the ones which will determine the quality of the final image of the fingerprint. Incase this was being captured for a fingerprint authentication system this may have a very serious effect on the overall performance of the system. It is therefore necessary to use a good device in collecting or rather acquiring this image.
 (Jones, 2000)

In the market today, there are a number of different devices that are used for fingerprint acquisition. The main idea or rather the basic principle in all these machines and which is known to determine the difference in performance among them is their ability to measure in whatever way the physical difference between these valleys and ridges in a fingerprint. It is under this basic principle that fingerprints collection devices can be classified under two broad categories which are optical fingerprint readers and solid state fingerprint readers.
 (Jones, 2000)

The procedure that is used in capturing fingerprints through the use of a sensor involves touching or rolling the finger onto a sensing area. This sensing area is the one that captures the difference that exists between ridges and valleys on a finger. This is according to the physical principle which is in use such as thermal, capacitive, optical or acoustic. The elastic skin is known to deform when a finger rolls or touches any service. The direction and quantity of the pressure that is applied the user, the projection of irregular three-dimensional objects on two-dimensional flat plane which creates distortion, the condition of skin, inconsistencies and noise in the fingerprint image that is captured are some of the problems that are encountered which are known to distort the final image that is produced.
(Gaensslen, 2007)

In addition, it happens that the effects of these problems on the same fingerprint are different and at the same time uncontrollable. This means that if the same finger is place on the capture machine, it produces a different image every time it is placed. This reduces the chances of fingerprints matching and hence limits the use of this important and crucial biometric technology.

These problems had been in existence for quite some time but finally there was a solution that was aimed at overcoming them and this is the use of a non-contact three-dimensional fingerprint scanner. This type of scanner is known to provide a digital-analogue image to this cumbersome and erroneous process of rolling or pressing the finger. This is done through controlling the distance that exists between the finger and the scanner which is known to have a resolution of up to 5001000 PPI.
 (Gaensslen, 2007)

After fingerprint examination, they are classified under four major categories based on the general ridge and valley formation. This classification was done way before the process was computerized and it was done manually. This classification or examination was done based on the presence or absence of circular patterns on fingers and this would help in retrieving records based on these patterns. These three classifications are arch, loop and Whorl. However, arch can also be subdivided to come up with tented arch.
 (Jones, 2000)

Other than these, there are a number of commonly used and very popular classification system but the most common are the Juan Vucetich, system, Roscher System and the Henry Classification System. The Henry system is the one that is commonly used and it consist of Loop which has 60-70 percent of all fingerprints, Whorl which has 25-35 percent of all fingerprints and Arch which has 5 percent of all fingerprints.
(Gaensslen, 2007)

In conclusion, in this new generation of computer technology, there are more classifications where examination and comparison is now done by computers. It has turned out to be more accurate and the use of fingerprints is known to bring to service drug dealers and other forms of criminal activities in the world.

The US Department of Homeland Security was formed in the wake of the 911 terrorist attacks with the sole purpose of keeping America safe from any terrorist threat internal or otherwise. It consists of various directorates and agencies which are discussed hereunder. Its structure and operations are also discussed.

Managing Homeland Security
The importance of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) cannot be downplayed. Its importance is confirmed by the number of employees it has, in the excess of 230,000, and its expansive budget which is in excess of 50 billion. In a nut shell its activities includes among others protection of high profile government officials, domestic nuclear detection and most importantly intelligence coordination.

Department of homeland security has four major directorates namely Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection Directorate, Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection Directorate, Science and Technology Directorate and Border and Transportation Security Directorate.

The Border and Transportation Security Directorate are charged with the responsibility of securing transportation operations and all border points. It consists of the following agencies The U.S. Customs Service (Treasury), The Transportation Security Administration (Transportation),Office for Domestic Preparedness (Justice), The Immigration and Naturalization Service (part) (Justice) ,Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (part)(Agriculture), Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (Treasury) and The Federal Protective Service (GSA). The Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate on the other hand coordinate response towards disasters by the government while at the same time undertaking disaster preparedness training and general disaster preparedness. It has under it the Strategic National Stockpile and the National Disaster Medical System, Nuclear Incident Response Team (Energy), National Domestic Preparedness Office (FBI), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and Domestic Emergency Support Teams (Justice).

Science and Technology Directorate which basically seeks to secure homeland by employing technological and scientific  know-how houses CBRN Countermeasures Programs (Energy),National BW Defense Analysis Center (Defense) ,Environmental Measurements Laboratory (Energy) and last but not least Plum Island Animal Disease Center (Agriculture).

The Information Analysis  Infrastructure Protection Directorate is charged with the mandate of analyzing all information and intelligence from all other agencies and further evaluating any threats that may be facing homeland security, particularly so the infrastructure involved. It houses the following agencies National Communications System (Defense),Critical Infrastructure Assurance Office (Commerce),National Infrastructure Protection Center (FBI) ,Federal Computer Incident Response Center (GSA) and the Energy Security and Assurance Program (Energy)

This department was created with the mission of developing and coordinating the implementation of a comprehensive national strategy to secure the United States from threats or even attacks from terrorists. It should be noted that the Department for Homeland Security is headed by the secretary of Homeland Security who is assisted by a deputy secretary.

The organizational structure of the department is summarized by the following chart.

This chart portrays the Department as logically organized since unity of direction and command is evident. This facilitates timely and coordinated horizontal and vertical communication between the various directorates and their constituent agencies.

While creating the DHS, there were agencies which have functions highly related to those of the department that were not included. Take for example the Federal Bureau of Investigation which could be helpful in collecting intelligence. Other agencies which were not included are National Security Agency and Central Intelligence Agency.

There are some independent agencies that did not exist as such before the establishment of the DHS. These includes the Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services which helps in easing the conversion of immigrants to US citizenship, the Office of Inspector General, the Office of Private Sector Liaison and the Office of State and Local Government Coordination.

Since inception six years ago, the department has been subjected to criticisms over the waste, ineffectiveness and bureaucracy .To support this the Congress estimated that as of September 2003, the department had wasted about 15 billion in unsuccessful contracts. In line wit this, the department is bringing together 35 locations in a bid to enjoy the economies of scale which would be achieved through wide-ranging effectiveness and efficiency initiatives.

The department seeks to streamline operations which are evidenced by its launch of the Quadrennial Homeland Security Review, the first of its kind, which will enhance inter-component analysis and communication as well as strategies that unify the departments policy making.

To achieve reforms and transparency, Secretary Napolitano launched has emphasized that all department employees should operate with the highest possible ethical standards and thus should receive a personal and comprehensive ethics briefing by the chief ethics officer when joining the department.

The current structure is by far superior to older organizational versions in its ability to efficiently identify, mitigate, prepare, respond, and recover from threats to US national security domestically and internationally since resources are better managed ,duplication has been eliminated ,costs has been trimmed and most importantly operations has been streamlined.

Criminal justice is a thorny issue in society. According to Mathew, (2005), the criminal justice system is subject to media, ideological and political influences.  The ideological nature of law making holds great effect on the criminal justice system. The media coverage of criminal activities especially in reference to terrorism is also put into perspective by the scholar. A major disillusionment concerning the justice system is premised on growing concerns over the quest for honesty and fairness particularly on the political establishment. Policing,  plea bargaining, bail, the war on drugs, sentencing punishment by incarceration plus the death penalty, the role of race, gender, class, among other issues have been raised as potential setbacks in the justice system (Mathew, 2005).

The criminal justice system is a governmental institution responsible for law enforcement, court administration, and provision of correctional facilities.  The various agencies within the system are expected to guarantee societal cohesion. This has been achieved remains to be seen though one can ably argue that the system has played a noble goal in the American society.

The criminal justice system is not consistent with the requirements of social justice as posited by Mathew (2005). The system is a failure in regards to the promotion of socially just practices or outcomes. In launching an attack on the system, Mathew, (2005), claims that the system is not a system in the first place. The scholar sees the system as a network. The scholar further finds out that the system places more importance on crime control as opposed to due process rights. In simpler terms, the intended reflection captures the fact that the criminal justice system is aimed at punishment instead of rehabilitation. The criminal justice system is seen as a reflection of prejudice in the American society. This is in so far as the system employs in its practices the use of death sentence and the handling of the drug war (Mathew, 2005). A major standpoint here is connected to an equal treatment to culprits surrounding these offences.
 
A system is ideally an organization that consists of several parts that work together as a unit in pursuit of a common goal. In reference to Mathew, (2005), a system must maintain harmony in the execution of its activities. This has not been achieved in the American criminal justice system (2005). To cite specific examples, the police force, courts plus corrections have in the past developed separately. Each of these organizations develops their own responsibilities and goals. Despite this crucial realization, the courts are expected to achieve a common agenda. Ideally, these agencies should work as a group because their agenda is correlative in nature. As an illustration, courts rely on the policy to initiate trial processes, if the courts make convictions, the correctional facilities depend on the court for guiding information regarding the cases. But if there is a breakdown between the three, the police are likely to get a backlog of cases due to failure by the correctional facilities. According to Mathew, (2003), the American criminal system is loosely connected and thus remains a body lacking in harmony.

Any criminal justice system has two main goals one the reduction of crime and secondly, the administration of justice (Mathew, 2005). The main methods to achieve the goals are through crime prevention and crime control. Crime control method is often reactive and remains commonly used by the system agencies. This method involves apprehending a criminal while in the act and barring the execution of the offence. In crime prevention, the system responsible addresses the root causes of problem and offers a solution thus negating the emergence of the crime.

The crime control model presents a tough stance on crime approach (Mathew, 2005). In this approach, the courts seek to convict many suspects as much as possible. In this model, the police and the public at large endeavor to obtain factual guilt. This presents a deviation from legal guilt which is based on credible and valid evidence. This model places much focus on plea bargaining. The model has drawn parallels with the assembly model of justice. In this model, issues are carried out expeditiously leading to questions about certainty. Through the use of a rash mode several mistakes may arise and thus jeopardize the success of a program.

The due process mode presents another version useful in handling cases. In this model both the offender and the offended reserve their legal rights. This model encourages an adversarial approach to issues as determinations of cases are based on actual truth. This model has been equated to the obstacle mode as the burden of proof dogs it. This method however good, it serves to undermine justice at times. As an example, if an individual commits a crime and nobody witnesses the act, then such a criminal stands to defeat justice. In this regard, the burden of proof is a big bottleneck in the criminal justice system (Mathew, 2005).

Recommendations
In order to ensure a just society, equality in treatment of offenders in similar cases should be observed. The criminal justice system should also ensure that there is a balance between the offenders act and the crime victim. This should be done through retribution or making attempts to correct an offender through the use of commensurate punishment. The scales of justice are a representation of perceptions. It is in this light that the system should make amends and be seen as an equal dispenser of justice to every citizen. In this case, social status ceases to inform the direction cases take.

If there is system breakdown as posited by Mathew, (2003), then a recommendation is made in regards to striking a working formula. The criminal justice system should consider working as a group by closely coordinating their activities. Communication should freely flow in the system so as to inform the different agencies on priority of issues. If the system manages to attain the harmony that is envisaged in an ideal system, then several issues affecting the justice system will be mitigated.

The American criminal justice system is accused of laying more emphasis on punishment than rehabilitation. Efforts to correct offenders are preferable if such individuals are guided by certain beliefs to engage in offences. The fact that punishment is hard and punitive serves to validate the call for using rehabilitation approaches. However, rehabilitation may pass as a soft stance on crime. On this basis, cases should be dealt with adequately to determine which case qualifies for rehabilitation and which one does not. It is also held that the use of punishment though punitive must be applied to serve as a deterrent measure.

A search warrant is an order issued by the court to its peace officers to find an object in a particular place specifically contained in the warrant. Such warrant must be based on the personal knowledge of witnesses summoned by the court to appear before it. The warrant is issued only after the judge has personally determined that the object sought to be seized is indeed in a particular location in the specified place declared by the witnesses. Such determination can only be achieved after the judge has asked searching questions to the witnesses and these witnesses have provided equally credible answers. The witnesses, in order to be considered credible enough by the court, must render answers based on their personal knowledge of the occurrence of the events or a part thereof. Without such personal knowledge, the statement of the witnesses does not hold water and could not be considered strong enough to secure the issuance of a search warrant.

In the case given, the search warrant applied for and if granted by the court poses a significant problem. The warrant is not based on the personal knowledge of Hans Cleane because the information he has given to Officer Slim Baton is based on what a little birdie has told him at a local bar. Such information is highly lacking credibility since it cannot be ascertained as to who actually has seen and heard Dean Liste bragging about the Boring job. The witnesses needed for the issuance of a warrant must be first-hand witnesses otherwise, any statements received shall be considered hearsay and is not considered credible. Furthermore, the information provided by Cleane to Officer Baton is just a bargaining chip for the previous offense committed by Cleane. Thus, the motive behind such offer of information is questionable, making it greatly unreliable.

Therefore, the application for a search warrant for the attic of Dean Liste should be denied by the court. To do otherwise, the court shall be violating the basic human right against unwarranted search and seizures which is granted by the Constitution.

Anti social behavior is a public menace which needs to be addressed. For it to be effectively tackled, knowledge and understanding on problems are important. It is defined to be an unacceptable behavior which is against societal norms and values by destroying lives of people and causing misery, harassment and distress in society (Home Office, 2004).  Anti social behavior is characterized by habits such as intimidation, nuisance, crimes, street begging, prostitution, drug use, domestic violence, hatred and rejections.
 
Introduction of Anti-Social Behavior Unit and action plans in tackling social problem facing youth act as evident that social problems are present in the localities and in community as a whole. Law states that government should meet their obligations by being committed in taking legal actions with aim of solving social disorders which are persistent in society. This can be achieved by forming society support groups, safety initiatives, target hardening schemes, education, social awareness and involving youths in projects and counseling which tends to discourage social problems. Society and agencies should work together through interventions processes and public should report o social disorder cases. It is important to identify and put intervention strategies on place to tackle and resolve social problems. This can be done through mediation and restoration initiatives. Responding to emergency cases of social problem plays a major role in reducing same occurrences is society (Home Office, 2004). The article presents the literature review findings on anti social behaviors and policy responses made to reduce social disorders among young people in order to have just society. The main purpose of the review is to identify intervention strategies made to tackle anti social behavior which could lead to improvement of community.

Anti Social Behaviors
Violence and anti social behaviours among young people are the major public concern in many nations whether developed or developing. These are related to factors such as individual, family, and school which contribute to social problems.  It is asserted that violence acts among Icelandic youth generation is associated with gender, poor parental social support, abuse of substance, psychological emotion instability and negative life experiences (Halliday-Boykins 2004).

The social problem impacts society negatively by breaching peace among individuals in neighbourhood which may extend to wider community. These influences can be noise, harassment, property destruction, crime acts, intimidation, verbal abuse, peddling of drugs, prostitution, domestic violence, substance abuse, dumping litter around residential houses and neglected properties. Effects can be furthered by denying young people the right for life, religion, and family life, freedom of expression and right to own property through torture and discrimination (South Bedfordshire 2005). Extreme cases of social deviance among youths lead to jail and corporal punishment due to crimes and juvenile delinquency (Shulruf 2008).

Most people can display anti social behaviors which can be temporal or situational and depending on individuals it can either be stable or persistent among adolescents (Moffitt 1993). Anti social behavior is a trait which starts developing in early childhood and may continue to youth life and later to adulthood (Patterson, Ramsey and Debaryshe 1990).

Policy Responses on Anti Social Behaviors
Everyone desires to live in safe and quiet environment where people live with each other peacefully. This can not be the case always since there are anti social behaviors which cause real world problems (Basingstoke and Deane). The impact of social deviance is extremely dangerous and has negative effect on individuals and community as a whole. People who engage themselves in anti social behavior put their lives, family members and wider society lives at risk.

Effective responses on tackling anti social behaviors are diverse and as a matter of fact communities have developed various responses to reduce social problems Responses are prevention, intervention and enforcement (Nacro 2003 White 2007). Individuals can help police and other agencies to tackle problems in their localities by reporting social disorders this may prevent the occurrence of same problem thus, making community safe. Evidence from victims and witnesses is important because it demonstrates the distress by displaying how it damages the community (HM Government 2010).

The fact is that accurate evaluations on interventions have been made in attempt to reduce anti social problems which proved to be effective. There is importance of making informed decisions on future intervention policies and programs. Despite the appealing initiatives, there is no strong support in evaluating interventions for effective development of social policies and programs (Rubin et al., 2006).  The most effective treatment is through having thorough knowledge and understanding on social problems in order to address factors that influences anti social behaviors (Halliday-Boykins 2004).  Responses made to prevent and tackle social disorders involves education and awareness, interventions, restorative justice, mentoring and therapies.

Interventions
There are extensive interventions approaches that have been put into place to be used in prevention or reduction of social deviance. The approaches includes early, coercive, developmental and situational interventions.

Early intervention
It is promising approach in early stages which prevent future youthful and adulthood social behaviors. It is useful method of tackling problem as early as possible by focusing on risks which may result to anti social behaviors (Farrington and Coid 2003). Infancy and pregnancy related problems can be alleviated by visiting antenatal and post natal clinics which reduces child being physically abused or abandoned by teenage and single mothers. The preschool programs play a vital role in impacting children intellectual ability by increasing rate of thinking and reasoning. This resulted to future education achievements which is very effective in alleviating social crimes in society (Farrington and Coid 2003).

It is crucial approach since the presence of juvenile delinquency and anti social problems among children highly predicted future social deviance. Poverty, convictions, imprisonment and single parenthood are risk factors associated with social problems on future child life. Social behaviors can be prevented by helping the family to overcome the problem they face which result to reduction of these behaviors (Rubin, Rabinovich, Hallsworth and Nason, 2006).

Safer Portsmouth partnership established Early Intervention Project which has been successful in service delivery. The program provides support and advocacy to victims of social deviance which are accessed from through health and police departments. Service provision is client based and levels of victimization have been reduced from 84 to 16 in 3 years. Project is independent in advocacy and has won international, local and national awards. It is continuing in delivery of advocacy services through innovations and creations in securing clients security (Safer Portsmouth partnership 2007-2008).

Coercive Intervention
Policy focuses on changing aspects of the situation in which crimes are occurring in order to reduce the opportunity for offences. This has been designed as restrictive measure use to deter young people from engaging in crimes. The approach has been found to be useful by local authorities and police. In dealing with the social problem and can reduce crimes. Available sources suggest that policy cannot be relied on prevention or even reduction of social problems among youth. Punishment threats on social and criminal behavior restrain the occurrence of offences.  Threat can be effective on individuals who have low self control, this responds to approach positively (Rubin et al., 2006). Use of detention and imprisonment has not produce any positive effects in reducing recidivism.

Developmental Intervention
This approach is also known cognitive behavioral or therapeutic intervention. The approach addresses how thoughts, feelings and behavior are interrelated. The most effective intervention for non-institutionalized delinquency behavior was counseling of individual, interpersonal skills training, and behavioral program support which recidivism. The approach deals with rehabilitation of offenders through skills and capacity development to lead morally acceptable social life. Intervention involves education and counseling of offenders and immediate family members. Youths and children who are at risk of social deviance are targeted early by being provided education support to have positive behaviors (Rubin et al., 2006).

Situational Intervention
Situational factors are easily distinguished between an individual and group. Factors can be analyzed by considering what triggers the occurrence of social problems (White, 2007). Situational intervention revolves around the personality, social deviance and crimes are mostly dependent on opportunities available (Rubin et al., 2006). The social deviance opportunities can be decreased by shunning instantaneous  close of bars,  avoiding use of bottle and glasses in bars, improving street light and making sure public  transport and taxis are readily available at late ours. It is asserted that street light has positive effect in reducing social crimes, this results to just society whereby there is pride, cohesion and informal social control. Street lights and clean environments have greatly contributed to general public safety, increase use of public places and citizen have become law abiders by upholding norms and values of the society. The situation in which people act defines and set individual behavior. Police, public, council and business owners significantly contribute in determining the occurrence of social deviance. The approach is very effective if other agencies work in partnership in intervention process and implementations (Rubin et al., 2006). Policy focuses on changing aspects of the situation in which crimes are occurring in order to reduce the opportunity for offence.

Family Based Intervention
Family factors predict the future occurrence of anti social problems among the youths. Social deviance is characterized by poor parental guidance, low income, divorce or separation, abusive parents and neglect. Positive family interactions and good relationship among family members are important in reducing social problems (Farrington and Coid 2003). Family Intervention Projects have been established to support families by dealing with the most challenging problems faced in families which leads to social deviance (National Centre for Social Research 2010). The support resulted positive outcomes, families who were involved with anti social behaviors experienced tremendous decrease of social deviance from 89 to 32  in 2009. The intervention work through support programs by challenging social deviance, providing parental support, supporting children education, management of risk factors, improvement of family property, stopping violence acts and improving living standards by providing knowledge and skills to parents and children to support themselves in future

This is the most effective program designed to prevent occurrence of social problems. It includes family therapy, parental training, multi systematic therapy and Oregon treatment foster care which are basically based on family. The focus of therapy is on done on familiar risks and factors that influence social problems among youths (Halliday-Boykins, 2004). The family and parental analysis made in USA, Norway and Canada asserts that this policy has great impact in reducing juvenile delinquency. It is very effective approach to be used in solving youth offences and social problems. It specifically suit individual needs while it targets risky factors that exposes youths to behavioral problems (Rubin et al., 2006). Parental training support and early childhood interventions are the most effective prevention measures on targeted population, this reduces social problems.

Education and awareness
Public awareness was established to allow young people realize their self-esteem in order for them to achieve sense of belonging.  This development encouraged knowledge and understanding on importance of family, friends and society.  Youths were exposed to different environments to identify issues affecting the community. This encouraged them to take responsibility and leadership roles which lead to reduction of social deviance in schools, homes and community.  Recreational activities and privileges were introduced this enhanced new experiences since the opportunities provided were attractive compared to crime and anti social behaviors. Self awareness resulted to pride and self respect among youths by improving their personality, self-image and self- esteem (Shulruf 2008).

Involvement in sports and physical activities plays a major role in personality and social development which will have positive effect on personal behavior (Morris et al., 2003).  The objective of the approach was to identify the effectiveness of the response policy with regard to young people behaviors, self- perception and participants satisfaction. The policy was effective since it involved active learning approaches (Shulruf 2008).

Safer Portsmouth partnership has also established Racial Awareness Services which provides information, advice, advocacy and support to victims and perpetrators of racial harassment. It is client based which deals with diverse communities in Portsmouth (Safer Portsmouth partnership 2007-2008). Education and vocational training opportunities presents individuals with interpersonal skills. The outcome was found to be positive since it helped individuals to enter labor market and the living standards have been improved through better income (Rubin et al., 2006).

Restorative Justice
It is defined as rehabilitation approach that deals with offence, whereby parties involved come together with objective of resolving the conflicts between the parties. Despite the description that victims and offenders come together in presence of mediators, victims are not necessarily involved in the process. Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act in UK introduced Referral orders to young people aged between 10 and 17 who were first time convicted, where restorative justice process took place by referring youths to specialized panel. The Youth Justice Board formed restorative justice schemes known as Family Group Conferencing in favor of youths. Restoration was measured with agreement that youths involved will not commit the offence again. The process is only positive when the offence is one and is still under consideration. The use of the approach is only acceptable when agreements are made by ensuring that victim and local agency provides positive environment for an offender to acknowledge hisher social deviance , recognize its negative impact on others and agree to stop social disorder  by engaging himself to acceptable activities (Rubin et al., 2006). Halt Scheme was introduced to whereby offenders were given a chance to work or pay the damage to rectify their mistakes. The approach was effective in reducing recidivism, young people ceased to commit crimes.  Family Group Conferencing is effective and acceptable restoration justice since youths were not taken to courts or custody. Youth and family members were involved in decision making thus, ensuring that they were accountable and responsible for the social deviance.

Conclusion
Local authorities, police, parents and social workers have powers to deal with anti social disorders so long as they have effective action plan on ground. An effective and appropriate response to anti social behaviors requires thorough and extensive evaluation of local communities and neighbourhood with careful approach on nature of problem.

Interventions should include whole family by putting into consideration each individual needs by offering range of interventions to suit particular issue such as rewarding good behaviors and provision of parental support programs. Working in partnership with other agencies offers variety of intervention programs.

Maintaining positive benefits from interventions are independent on integration of community support programs.  Moreover, clear aims and outcomes of interventions should be put in place and monitored where possible so that the program remains relevant in tackling social issues among youths. Safe and emotionally stable environments are necessary in engaging youths to promote the programs aimed at achieving their designed objectives. It is a point of worth to mention that, effectiveness of interventions is most useful when the ranges of approach are accompanied by information about the benefits of the policies established to prevent or reduce social deviance.

With terrorism now a world wide problem, it is necessary to see how conflict has changed from
State-to-State wars of the early 20th century, to the need to have counter terrorist operations of
today.  Wars fought in the twentieth century centered mostly on nationalist issues with passion
 and  pride, for protecting borders against invasion and attacks on the nations people. Since then
there  has been severe damage to the legitimacy of the international order and governments.

Although dissent and resistance were common in many colonial possessions, and sometimes
resulted in open warfare, nationalist identities became a focal point for these actions. Members of
ethnic groups whose states had been absorbed by others or had ceased to exist as separate nations
saw opportunities to realize nationalist ambitions. Several of these groups chose terror as a
method to conduct their struggle and make their situation known to world powers they hoped
would be sympathetic.

The age of modern terrorism actually started in 1968 when the Popular Front for the Liberation
of Palestine (PFLP) hijacked an El Al airliner. The largest international terrorism attacked
occurred on September 11, 2001 in a set of co-ordinated attacks on the United States of America
where Islamic terrorists hijacked civilian airliners and used them to attack the World Trade
Center towers in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington, DC.  Other major terrorist
attacks have also occured in New Delhi (Indian Parliament attacked) Bali car bomb attack
London subway bombings Madrid train bombings and the most recent attacks in Mumbai
(hotels, train station and a Jewish outreach center). The operational and strategic
epicenter of Islamic terrorism is now mostly centred in Pakistan and Afghanistan.

Terrorism is no longer a law enforcement problem. Therefore with homeland security involving
military forces and intelligence agencies, things have  changed and  counter terrorism adopted.
After Cebrowski, a former president of the naval war college, recognized the need to have a
 network of warfare centric operations involving small combined military forces outfitted
with the latest technology, the whole nature of military action has changed. Cebrowski focus at
that time was on state to state wars. He felt armed forces need to develop ability to operate deep
in society and that it was necessary to create a new  defense  culture that permeated all levels of
society and  broke down barriers between organizations. According to him defense forces, must
be able to find targets and defeat  irregular forces, and achieve this by developing ways to avoid
strategic surprise. This strategy involved social immersion, and higher education which the
military forces  need to use.

Clausewitz was familiar with this because of Prussias partition of Poland with Russia and
Austria. His philosophy was that people fight to win a political victory, and it may be necessary
to think beyond open battlefields. Martin Van Creveld (1991.p142-156) presents the same idea
differently. He argues that a war for existence changes the nature of conflict when a community
fights to survive. In such circumstances there can be no political purpose as violence is the
purpose.  Creweld uses the French Algerian war (1954-1962) as an example of  non-classical
war.  The Algerians did not field an army and their attacks on the French violated established
codes of conflict and criminal law. The French responded with cost benefit analysis for fighting
 and sent troops based on this policy. Their aim was to impose political will on the Algerians. For
the Algerians survival became more important and their resorting to violence was justified.
Though their causalities were much higher than the French, the fighting  of the French became
justified and eventually through violence they succeeded.

If military forces are to change for future battles, they need to develop police like capabilities as
It  is clear that the nature of conflict has changed. If military forces approach homeland security
as  a continuation of national policy, they will bring the  wrong weapon to the wrong war.

Thomas Barnett (2004) says the purpose of power is to create a new set of international rules,
in which all nations are included  in economic development , prosperity and peace. When some
nations are excluded, terrorists  have no incentive to play within the rules. This meaning of war
extends beyond the realm of military force, and gives new roles to a variety of government and
private agencies.

Conclusion
The recent growth of terrorism has changed all aspects of military affairs and
the nation must be prepared to enter a new type of war.

Military forces must still fight these battles, but their mission has been extended and they must
transform their structure to take the fight to the terrorists. New capabilities developed to prevent
violence, keeping infrastructure operating, including the whole political spectrum and defending
the social structure must all be part of the strategy. There is need to realize that conflicts are
today quite different to the past wars of  the twentieth century .

Homeland Security poses a number of difficulties, as there are numerous agencies responsible
for preventing terrorism. Apart from Federal agencies, these include state, local and tribal law
enforcement agencies. There is conflict of interest and purpose amongst these agencies and this
necessitates rethinking, to resolve the issues involved. Homeland Security was created after
911, with the intention of countering terrorism and making America safe. With no clearly
defined role, the organization is not fully able to do the task it was set up for. Weighing it down
are agencies unconnected to terrorism prevention like private businesses, non-profit
organizations, and healthcare agencies, all working separately and making it an unwieldy set up.

Incapable of reform in intelligence gathering as it has no expertise, it does not even keep a
terrorist watch list. It tends to compete with the CIA which has the lead role in national counter
terrorism. Agencies like the secret service are primarily concerned with presidential security,
 banking and cyber crimes. The FBI has post 911 enhanced its counter terrorism department and
coordinates  local law enforcement efforts in joint terrorism task forces. The Department of
Defense is not connected with internal matters except in times of martial law. Even otherwise the
CIA and the FBI are two agencies which have direct access to the President and who brief him
directly. These two organizations now have a mandate to work jointly on intelligence gathering
and sharing information both within and  outside America, which is not happening.                                                                                                            
To overcome this complex situation, the office of Director of National Intelligence, was set up in
2007 uniting all US security intelligence agencies under one umbrella and includes the NSA and
Military intelligence, CIA, National geo-space intelligence, National reconnaissance agency and
Intelligence from the state.

Bruce Hoffman (2006, p43-60) states that America has experienced anti colonialism, ideological
and religious terrorism, and that in future it will have to face small to major military attacks.
If we understand that the threat from terrorist networks, in the nature of modern conflict, works
to disrupt, using technology, social support, and tactical doctrine. Technology is crucial to it as it
is  a force multiplier. Terrorisms objectives are unchanged, but the methods are different, in that
they now target civilian, symbolic and technological infrastructures. Terrorists are fanatics who
fight outside the rule of law and seem to want to convey the impression that even powerful
governments cannot protect people.                                                                                                          
The National Criminal Intelligence Sharing Plan (NCISP) came into existence and has
connectivity with fifty states, five territories and 50 major urban areas. It has formed a computer
 based counter intelligence communication system and set up Fusion centers so that all data
is analyzed at a single centre. To counter terrorism, the need is to have effective pre-emptive
offensive policing. With good planning, the police can look for threats in the local community.
There are problems with local government and entrenched bureaucracies who do not want to
change to a centralized executive authority, as they have own agendas. Preventing terrorism
requires Bureaucratic change, which does not come easily (Max Weber 1864-1920).
However changes can come about if Federal agencies enter into cooperative relationships with
their local counterparts, as the officers in local communities know their jurisdiction the best
when it comes to terrorism. Border vulnerability is also a disputed area of terrorism threat. With
300 seaports, airports, and a porous border in the south, there are always illegal immigrants
slipping in.

Bureaucratic changes present challenges, but they also present opportunities. If state and local
agencies establish informal networks with organizations in their jurisdiction and extend
 cooperation to the federal system, by expanding their role, law enforcement officers will be
forced to rethink the way they do business. Local officers who normally think only of their
jurisdiction, will think of national security. Bureaucratic hurdles can be overcome largely if
all organizations agree to act together and pool their resource. (Swanton, Territo, Taylor 2001,
P643-644, Best. 2001, Bordero 2002, Mitchell and Hulse 2002). There is also the question of
WMD, as no one is really fully in charge, and there is serious lack of coordination between the
agencies. The Homeland Security Council and the National Security Council need to both be
looked at by Congress and recognized that national security and Homeland Security is the same.

Conclusion
Homeland Security should cover all aspects of intelligence gathering both local and worldwide
and taking necessary steps to protect all life and structures through preventive action. It must use
all the resources of the different agencies and pool it to achieve this. This includes inputs from
the NCISP. The Director of National Intelligence presently appears best suited to be the Apex
controlling body, as it already has all Federal and state agencies reporting to it. This way the two
most effective agencies CIA and FBI, will be working under one head with the same mission.
Homeland and National Security Council after merging could look after WMD, and also come
under the DNI. Countering terrorism and making the country safe can only be achieved through
pooling all resources and working jointly towards the same goal, through good coordination.