Criminology

It has been revealed that a majority of offenses committed in the society is associated with substance abuse or have been carried out while under the influence of drugs. Hiller, Knight and Simpson (1999) discover that a large percentage of criminals were found positive for illicit drugs in their system after being subjected to urine screening. Hiller et al have however discovered that some prison-based rehabilitation programs have been introduced so as to reduce the rates of re-arrest and reconviction plus better parole results. Therefore there is a need to investigate whether these rehabilitation programs genuinely lead to a decrease in being arrested and convicted again for people who commit drug related offenses. This essay aims to evaluate the aspects related to rehabilitation programs in regards to offenses committed while under the influence.

Research Questions
The hypotheses that will be presented by the following objectives are relational because the aim is to establish the relationship between illicit drugs and the committing of crimes.
There is a relationship between the perpetration of crimes and the substance abuse.
A large percentage of felony convictions in state courts involve drug related offenses
Prison based programs are positively associated with reduction of rates of re-arrest and reconviction.
Internal treatment programs in prisons extend the length of time before one is arrested again especially when a parolee undertakes the residential community based aftercare.

Evaluation Site and the Subject to be studied
The program to be studied is the Ending Offending Program which according to the Queensland Correctional Services Fact Sheet (2009) is one that is culturally specific and it is intended for local offenders in Australia in order to aid them in dealing with aspects of their criminal tendencies that are related to alcohol abuse.

The program is a brief one that is focused on helping these local offenders to adjust their drinking and offending actions accordingly. Various culturally appropriate exercises will be carried out based on a cognitive behavioral model.

Evaluation Design
The evaluation design that has been chosen to carry out the study is secondary data analysis. The design intended is a quasi experimental design that will carry out a study according to what other researchers have come up with. The experimental group will be the individuals who commit offenses related to the abuse of drugs or any other intoxicants such as alcohol thus causing them to be arrested and convicted for the crimes they have committed.

The Ending Offending Program has stated various steps required by focusing on various key aspects
Identifying the effects of alcohol use on health, behavior and offending others in the community.
Identification of elements that act as triggers thus leading one to use alcohol and therefore finding a way to control them.

Development of methods that will be used in order to prevent a relapse from occurring and supervision of these people and help them establish positive lifestyle options.
The Fact Sheet for the Queensland Corrective Services (2009) explains that the Ending Offending Program is for people who have an outstanding need for treatment in relation to alcohol and are recognized as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islanders. It is also meant for people who have a score of less than16 in the ROR (Risk of Re-offending) scale.

Population and Sample
Perry (2003) investigates that 58 cases of hate crime perpetrators have been studied and 60 of them have been discovered to be related to a history of substance abuse and over 20 have had a history of psychiatric treatment. She has also related the use of drugs to violence within lesbian relationships in addition to a family history of violence, dependency issues and power inequalities.

Bean (2003) carries out a study and asserts that drug use by young people in the adolescent to the young adulthood stage is more likely to persist over their life span more than participation in predatory crime. Future drug use is also predicted to be less likely to influence criminal behavior. In contrast, criminal behavior in the future is more likely to lead to drug use.

The problem with Perrys study is that she focuses on a very small portion of the population and one a specific type of crime. She focuses on the violence that occurs in a lesbian relationship as a form of hate crime. Hate crime does not account for all the crime that occurs within a country as there are various types of crime other than that category.

Beans study is supported by Chaiken and Chaiken (1990) who state that drug use and predatory crime are samples of behavior that coexist in certain social groups but in others, drug abuse and predatory criminality are not related.

Variables and Data Collection methods
In this study, various variables are going to be identified. They fall into the categories of independent and dependent variables.

The dependent variables involved are hate crimes such as the violence against lesbians in a relationship, predatory crimes such as robberies and burglaries, the percentage of criminals found with drugs in their system, the rate of re-arrest and re-conviction.

The independent variables found are the drugs used, the age of the drug useroffender, the personal income of the drug useroffender, the rehabilitation program, and psychological state of the drug useroffender.

The collection of data is to be done through the following methods use of the internet for research on this particular subject, interview of experts who are well versed on this particular field and sampling.

Conclusion
The Queensland Corrective Services Fact Sheet (2009) states that the Ending Offending Programs primary treatment targets are substance abuse awareness, lifestyle choices, relapse prevention and awareness of actions that are related to alcohol abuse. Drug use is related to certain crimes but not all of them thus they are not necessarily linked. A 60 rate of hate crime has been discovered in studies to be related to a history of drug abuse whereas 20  is related to a history of psychiatric treatment.  

Growing up, my parents, older relatives and teachers always stressed on the importance of staying clear of bad practices like drug abuse. Growing up in a society that thought excessive drinking of alcohol and smoking was cool, my parents and teachers took every opportunity to insist that the practice led to addiction and health problems like cancer and other respiratory difficulties. Drugs were painted as a bigger monster by authority figures, which I later on came to appreciate as I saw the effects of addiction of such by coming across people who had been affected and reading stories of others who had fallen victims of drug abuse.

A drug can be defined as a substance used either for medicinal purposes or as a narcotic. The U.S Drug Enforcement Administration identifies narcotics as having been derived from a Greek word that means stupor, which was the description for a variety of substances that numb the human senses to relieve pain (2010). Currently, the term is being used in different ways. Some people use the term to indicate any illicit matter while others describe it as the substances that blind receptors in the body making them non receptive to feelings. The cell membranes in the body have proteins that are activated by substances such as morphine and heroin hence creating the numbing effect (US Drug Enforcement Administration, 2010). Narcotics are defined in the legal context as opium, its derivatives and substitutes of their semi-synthetic form. The department adds that Coca leaves and cocaine are also considered as narcotics under the specifications of Controlled Substances Act. The Act claims that opiate receptors do not produce effects like the ones witnessed in morphine and are therefore considered as stimulants. Drugs and substances that generate effects similar to morphines are also considered as narcotics.

Therapeutic Use of Narcotics
Narcotics are used for therapeutic purposes in the treatment of pain, alleviation of diarrhea and stubborn coughs, and also using the substance as anesthesia (Drug Addiction Support, 2010). Administration of narcotics involves taking them orally, injections and skin patches.  Narcotics are abused by sniffing, smoking or in form of injections. The effect they generate majorly depends on the dosage taken and the means of administration in relation to the individuals predisposure to the substance.

Narcotics are also administered to generate a feeling of well being to individuals by reducing tension, aggression and feelings of anxiety. This does not mean that narcotics are the only means of relieving such conditions. Other medical solutions like alternative depression and pain medication is prescribed by doctors worldwide. Despite the positive effects that therapeutic administrations of narcotics generate, abuse of narcotics can lead to adverse effects. The effects of drugs depend on the dose taken, route of administration, and any previous exposure to the drug.

Causes of Drug Abuse
Although intended for medical purposes of healing and suppressing pain, individuals may be carried away by taking the narcotics even long after they get better leading to them getting addicted to the drugs. Recreational needs for taking drugs are however triggered by different factors. Some tendencies to take drugs are inherited (Drug Addiction Support, 2010). Research by the Drug Addiction Support organization shows that children born by parents who are dependent on drugs end up with a higher probability of taking drugs than those whose parents do not take drugs. The research conducted based on evaluation of the members supported by the organization revealed that individual personality also affects the individuals likelihood of taking drugs. This owes to external factors like peer pressure and ones capability to stay clear of such pressures. The support organization also revealed that ready availability of drugs to a certain region may make more people to start the habit of drug abuse and end up addicted even though they did not initially set out to be such. Anxiety, loneliness and depression is seen to be a contributing factor that is likely to see individuals start taking drugs and end up addicted to the habit as a result of the short calming effect that drugs may offer them. Due to the reasons for drug abuse being different for diverse population indicate that different people are trapped into the habit as a result of different causes.

Drug Abuse and its Effects
Aside from their medical use, narcotics produce a general sense of well-being by reducing tension, anxiety, and aggression. The US Drug Enforcement Administration reports that the effects of narcotics are helpful only in a therapeutic setting but can tribute to their abuse causing unfavorable results. Drug use may lead to drowsiness, lack of interest, a reduction in physical activity, pupil constriction, constipation, nausea, respiratory disorders and flushing of the face and neck. An increase in dosage worsens the effects of abusing the drug. Excessive intoxication may even lead to loss in motor coordination or deterred speech as reported by the department (2010).

More serious hazards of drug abuse include the never ending risk of infection by diseases associated with the practice and overdose. Street drugs have unknown elements that may not be compatible to the users body hence causing unfavorable outcomes. Sharing of illegal drugs which leads to the likely use of non sterilized equipment to inject oneself with drugs may see the user infected with HIV, hepatitis, endocarditis which is the inflammation of the fine lining of the heart and other affiliate complications. Repeated use of narcotics may lead to tolerance to the substance and later on full fledged addiction. Addiction to drugs causes social and financial problems to both the direct user and the people around himher. These individuals end up being unable to provide to their families or even themselves.

The ready unavailability of drugs and an accompanying high cost may lead to the exhaustion of the users financial resources which may lead to social problems like theft and violence as the addict ensures they do everything they can to acquire the drugs. Psychological dependency on narcotics is a more serious yet complex effect of drug abuse according to the National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA, 2010). The end of physical dependency marks the onset of the psychological dependence in situations where users continue to administer the drug. Addicts are overwhelmed with the daily conduct of normal life without the use of the drugs hence feel the need to use them to be able to even perform simple duties like concentrating on one thing or even making simple conversations. The National Institute on Drug Abuse reveals that drug abuse by pregnant mothers may have undesirable effects such as premature births, low birth weight, miscarriages, death of the unborn baby or at times cognitive and behavioral difficulties to the unborn child should they survive development.

Withdrawal Symptoms
The probability of the occurrence of a relapse after the leaving the habit is more often than not likely to take place. Symptoms of relapse associated with most narcotics are manifested shortly after the stop of the last dose and the administering of the next (Drug Addiction Support, 2010). Symptoms include watery eyes, sweatiness, running nose, restlessness, loss of appetite, irritability, tremors, nausea and cravings for the drug which vary from one addict to another depending on the kind of the drug the individual is addicted to. Depression and severe vomiting is a common symptom to most withdrawals from most drugs. The symptoms may fade away without any intervention in most cases after about ten days. However, some addicts may fall back onto their addiction after being unable to function without the drug.

Conclusion
Drug abuse results to effects that are not beneficial to users or other people. Negative effects that range from financial constraint, poor social and physical heath and a possibility of the occurrence of death are the most likely outcomes of the vice. With this in mind individuals should stay clear of the practice and also create awareness to others on how to avoid the unfavorable outcomes associated with drug abuse in an effort to protect life and live it with utmost sanctity. Parents should also educate their children about the dangers and outcome of drug abuse.

In recent times, prosecution and arrests have been put into use against culprits of domestic violence with rising severity, representing a valuable step in paying attention to the crime of domestic violence. a good number of jurisdictions have taken further steps through the employment of aggressive modes of mandatory arrest. The policy has been greeted with mixed reactions as advocates and law enforcement agencies tussle over the issue. However, a sticky point concerns the welfare of the victims after the use of the policy in the emerging cases. The study seeks to find out whether the use of mandatory arrest is congruent with the needs of the victims.  

Domestic violence is a problem that is deeply entrenched within the American society. As all efforts center on reforming society especially on this front, it is believed that the mandatory approach though playing a useful role should be changed so as o tally with the well being of the victims.

This research is important since domestic violence has arisen to a point of prominence in society. The adoption of mandatory arrest policy served to heighten debate in the discourse and thus necessitating a study to determine the efficacy of using it as a deterrent measure. The topic is feasible and should provide important insight into the issue which is socially remains sensitive. Through the use of the time series approach, observations are to be made regarding the changes in victims and culprits of domestic violence. This data will be analyzed using statistical approaches to determine their validity and reliability.

Literature review
Mandatory arrest is a representation of policies which empower the police to confine a suspect in any circumstance where there is belief of probable cause. This is purely related to cases of battery or assault. It doesn t matter whether the police officer has a warrant or not. Before the enactments of the mandatory arrest legislation were passed in most states, the police still held the powers to arrest without warranties in domestic violence cases. This law removes the discretionary power which the police may exercise to avoid taking action (Fagan, 2005).

The use of mandatory arrest is criticized for disempowering victims (Waltz, 2000). This holds true because the victim is denied the chance to institute a punitive measure against the batterer that meets the desired end. By taking away this choice, critics argue that the state acts like the batterer. This is wrong as it sends a negative message that the victim is not safe unless offered protection by a stronger party.

Since a controversial study carried out in 1984 linked domestic violence to reduced recidivism in battering culprits there has been a rise in mandatory arrest measures (Fagan, 2005). It is discernable that mandatory arrests have helped in subjecting domestic violence cases to great public scrutiny though the policies were adopted for the purposes of law enforcement with an aim of reducing recidivism in batterers.  

Apart from the above negativity associated with mandatory arrests, there are several other vulnerabilities that victims are exposed to (Robert, Lebow and Stein, 2005). To cite an example, while responding to domestic violence calls, it is difficult for a police officer to identify who the primary aggressor is. This holds if both parties claim that violence has been meted against them and there are injuries to ascertain the allegations. This is quite convincing as victims of battering are likely to fight back in self defense. In such cases it is difficult to ascertain who the primary aggressor is as any of the disputing parties can be the primary one. In these cases the police officers arrest both parties. However, such arrest may be detrimental to both parties as one is held responsible for ruining a relationship. If in self defense, the victim fails to adduce convincing evidence in support of the act, severe consequences may follow.  

Children within these relationships are bound to suffer. This follows if a court decides that one spouse is denied access or custody toof the children. Equally important is the idea of getting exposed to interventions by the Department of Social Services. This is despite the ruinous effect such an intervention mat visit on a batterer individual. The DSS normally forces the victims to make a choice between keeping their children and staying with the batterer. This offers a tricky proposition to victims as leaving may place children and the victim in more danger as opposed to temporary stay. Critics point to the idea of forcing this choice as equal to disempowering the victims by initiating change on the victim rather than on the perpetrator.

On the evidence of this literature review, it is plausible that the use of mandatory arrest helps check the emergence of domestic violence. However, the effects of the mode remain challenged on a number of issues. The effects the mode visits on the culprits and the victims is undesirable. On this basis, it is proposed that changes be made to make the method more responsive to the needs of the parties in question.

Theory
The deterrence theory is a reflection of a military strategy developed during the cold war period. However the term is more widely used in the field of criminal psychology. Simply put, deterrence is useful in a potential conflict area where one party has the ability to inflict injury on an aggressor and ensuring that the aggressor is pretty aware of the risk. The establishment of consequences faced after commission or omission leading to an offence is what constitutes deterrence.

Deterrence is a method used to persuade individuals from engaging in crime by making the people aware of what they face in reference to punishment faced in instances of law breaking. Such punishments are made public way ahead so that each individual is in a position to know the consequences of their actions. The intent of making the consequences known before hand is expected to serve as a scare to potential law breakers. It is thought that such instilling of fear in people would make them desist from engaging in unlawful acts. Studies have indicated that deterrence measures serves to lower crime rates (Fagan, 2005).  However, according to Fagan, (2005), these studies were fraught with mistakes relating to technicalities and conceptualization. The studies also failed to use appropriate statistical analysis methods and did not consider all relevant factors. They did not carry out a direct deterrence test (Fagan, 2005).

Deterrence is a strategy which governments or governmental agencies use to issue threats if an offence is committed. In this case, the use of mandatory arrest is presumed to serve as a deterrence measure against battering and domestic violence in general. As found out in the literature review, mandatory arrest has adverse effects on both parties to a relationship. For example, the loss of access to children, the separation of spouses and the effects on the children present undesirable elements in the whole process. If individuals understand their violent acts may lead them to fall victims of mandatory arrest, they are likely to take caution and desist from engaging in a violent manner (Robert, Lebow and Stein, 2005). Towards this end, it is held that violent behavior has been put on hold as a result of mandatory arrest, an aspect that serves as a deterrent measure.
      
The best form of punishment is never easy to determine. Each punishment has its positives and negatives if a method is positive, it must be good in a sense that it helps victims realize their wrongdoing and aspire or make steps towards changing. On the converse, the victim may turn out to be a worse criminal, an instance that captures the negative aspect of a punitive measure of the justice system. Imprisonment has been seen in the same light as in caging animals as it serves to deny people access to their families on a regular basis. This may in the long run hamper the normalcy in relating to people as imprisoned individuals often turn into introverts. In cases where victims are family heads, the situation is even trickier as the victim is disoriented on a variety of ways. This affects a good number of people who depend on them. The death penalty is the best deterrent measure, morality is also important in curbing crime and perhaps the best in that case (Fagan, 2005).

After looking at the phenomenon, domestic violence, the use of mandatory approach to dealing with victims and culprits should be changed to reflect fairness in terms of mitigating the offences.

Methodology
Time series design
This study intends to find out whether the use of deterrence measures like mandatory arrest achieves the intended goal. This method employs the use of variations in multiple observations in a group over time or at given points in time. This method will enable this research to examine behavior of an individual immediately at and after violence acts so as to determine whether the mandatory arrest achieves its goal and the extent to which it does (Baumol, Panzar and Willig, 2002). In this study, an examination of victims is proposed at Oregon, a relatively small city. This will take a period of over a year in order to get a clear picture of unfolding events regarding the effect of mandatory arrest.
Time series designs are known for their usefulness in looking into trends over a given time and how the trends are affected by sorts of interventions, however, researchers have noted that the design is far from valuable in reference to its inability to offer a control for all spurious effects (Baumol, Panzar and Willig, 2002). To cite an example if a researcher is examining the effect of rehabilitation of mandatory rehabilitation centers and makes an observation that the well being of the victims and culprits has changed for the better after facing mandatory arrest as a result of domestic violence. The researcher may however fail to capture the actual events regarding the issue being studied. What this calls for is caution while using the time series approach. To that end, the researcher must be considerate to include as much information as possible and employ the use of both empirical and non empirical measures in the studies conducted.

The sample
The study shall randomly pick on 50 individuals at Oregon, a remote city in the United States. The number is chosen randomly so as to increase on representation. A random sample is to be chosen well to escape cyclical errors that underlie some studies so as to better the reliability and validity of the results.  

Oregon being a remote part in the United States is expected to offer a good avenue to find individuals affected by domestic violence (John, 2009). This offers the reasoning behind making the choice to use the location. The fact that human beings behave differently depending on circumstances may call for this study to use the observational method in coming up with the intended information.

The characteristics which are to be observed in this study are based on aggressiveness and the ease in interacting. This is because the study aims to find out whether mandatory arrests leave an individual worse of or better off. An individual is left better off if such person associates with people freely and feels at liberty to engage publicly with others. On the converse, an individual is worse off after a mandatory arrest if the person in question is made to flee from the public and likes dealings that take place in isolation. The other feature observed is whether separation is forced between the conflicting parties and access to children denied. If this happens, the parties to the dispute are considered to have lost.

Sampling Procedure
According to Frase, (2002), the identification of the correct or suitable sampling procedure is positively correlated to the accuracy of the research findings. From the onset, it should be noted that this research is qualitative in nature and therefore the use of an appropriate sampling procedure shall be emphasized. Hence, this research study shall use systematic random sampling procedure to determine the sample for this study. This method has the merit of being easy to use while at the same time ensuring for accuracy during in determining the sample size.

Data Collection and Analysis
This study shall involve the use of both primary and secondary methods of data collection. The use of observation as the primary method of collecting data in relation to the research question is proposed. This shall be supplemented by the use of probing to allow for the collection of accurate and valid data. Additional information shall also be obtained from secondary sources such as books and related previous studies into this area. The use of secondary source of information has the merit of providing in-depth information on the topic under study which in turn helps the researcher to come up with responsive recommendations.  The collected data shall be analyzed and represented through the use of score tables, pie-Charts and graphs.

Research Plan
This research study shall be based on the following work plan.
Activity Time Frame (in Months) Reconnaissance and Sampling1st Month-2nd Month Preparation for observing the characteristics mentioned in the paper2nd Month Making observations and Data collection3rd Month to 4th MonthData Analysis and review of findings5th Month to 7th Month Preparation of Report 8th Month Discussion of Study Findings with Stakeholders and development of Recommendations 9th Month to 12th Month
Conclusion

This study intends to point out the deficiencies associated with using the mandatory arrest approach to serve as a deterrent measure against the engagement in domestic violence. The study, on the basis f the literature review points to a strong case against the mode albeit in its current form. The mode though very useful in checking the emergence of the problem of domestic violence, it still falls short in as far as results are concerned. The mode poses risks to the victims and the families of the victims as well as the culprits.  

The study is bound to be very useful in a number of ways. To begin with, the study is addressing a recent phenomenon mandatory arrest in reference to domestic violence. It stands to lead to benefits to the policy makers as it intends to point shortcomings of the approach. By pointing shortcomings in the approach, the study will equally help parties to such conflicts as it will help in the development of policies that are tenable with their interests. Students and scholars in the field of criminology and other related disciplines equally stand to benefit out of the findings of this research.

Based on this study, important aspects arise concerning the state of this issue. On this evidence, the paper proposes that further studies be conducted to determine how mandatory arrest policies aid the deterrent motif in the issue of domestic violence. It is also suggested that further research be done to ascertain whether indeed the ode holds adverse effects to both the victims and the culprits. If it is established to be the case, it is then proposed that further research be done to develop mechanisms to redress the situation.

At the first part of the reading, two accounts of crimes committed by a person or a group of persons towards other people are presented. The first account involves a couple whose relationship ended because of the jealous and violent nature of the man. The second story narrates the death of a family due to a feud that started with their children. After reading the two stories, there are congruent features based on the incidents involved prior to the commission of the crime. The said similarities can be used to define the concept of repeat victimization.

Based on the two narratives, certain elements can be attributed to repeat victimization and form an understanding of the said concept. First, repeat victimization, as the name suggests, involves repeated acts of threat andor a series of violent acts from the offenders to the victims, which could lead to the death of the latter. The repetitive acts of offenses committed by a person are a form of aggravation and there are chances that the offender will stop before the victims death. Second, a constant desire to harm the victim is observed from the end of the offender. In both narratives, the offenders expressed their desire, through verbal articulations or actions, to harm the victim prior to killing them and that there is little or no guilt and hesitation from the offenders side. Third, it is possible that the person who committed the crime will not be the same person who expressed the desire to kill the victim. As observed from both accounts, the person who wanted to inflict pain over their victims required the help andor bribed others to help them in the commission of crime. In the case of the couple, the man wanted to pay for the act but still did it when nobody wanted to do the task. On the second case, it was the child who first initiated the disagreement but it was his father who did the crime. Still, it was the mother and the daughter who provoked the fathers willingness to do the offense.

The prevention of repeat victimization can be preceded by certain methods to make it more effective. As a precedent to the prevention of repeat victimizations, the police authorities can use the sting or honeypot operations. Sting operations require making a tempting opportunity for the offenders and wait until the crime is committed. On the other hand, honeypot operations provide information on the frequency and strategies used by cybercriminals.

Nonetheless, there are also problems that can be encountered in the prevention of repeat victimizations. First, the pattern and frequency of offenses may be difficult to decipher. In this case, it is difficult to determine the location, type, and time of the next offense. When this happens, the police authorities experience difficulties in planning for preventive operations against the offender. Second, the offender may learn that the opportunity is a part of a police operation and would not participate or become more violent.

1. Repeat victimisation happens because the offender has created a suitable target they are familiar with, expects less resistance from and is motivated by potential rewards of carrying out the crime (Farrell and Pease, 1994). An example is repeated domestic brutality. This is attributed to the fact that the situation presents the offender with a single possible victim and requires less effort to prevent the victim from escaping.

As Farrell and Pease (1994) indicate, in the case of Mark Dyche and Tania Moore, the reward Dyche was hoping for was to see Tania hurting he was motivated by the fact that she had emotionally hurt him as a result of their separation. By reporting the robbery to the police Tanias statement that the incident left her shaken, vulnerable and made her feel unsafe was a further motivator. It also proved that fear had been instilled in her. Since the victim (Tania), lived in an isolated farm that Dyche had been watching the assault required less effort from offender (Dyche hired men) and cornered her minimizing any chances of escape. The period of hate campaign proved she was the only possible victim without a possible guardian.

2. In reference to the works of Farrell and Pease (1994) some Preventive strategies that can help prevent cases of Repeat Victimisation are

a) Sting operations due to the predictability of time and place of criminal events in cases of RV, it is easy for the police to set a trap for the offender(s).

b) Allocation of policing time and resources proportionately to level of crime. Where there is a tendency of repeat victimization (hot spots) more police and equipments should be deployed.

c) Target hardening this is the improvement of the victims safety measures. The target victim is simply empowered with tools to prevent a repeat of the crime on them.

In the last fifty years, there has been a sharp increase in the number of people using computers and the internet all over the world. While developing countries have predictably trailed their developed counterparts in the development and use of computer technology, the number of people depending on computers and the technology in both the developed and developing world has increased progressively. Not surprisingly, some criminals now commit low- and high-profile computer crimes, targeting computer and internet users. Every year, millions of US dollars are lost to computer criminals (Fusilier  Penrod, 2009). Like all other forms of crimes, computer crimes have been explained on the basis of a wide range of theories of crime. The appropriateness of each theory varies, rendering it impractical to rely wholly on any one theory to explain the now widespread phenomenon. This paper discusses the extent to which the rational choice theory and psychological theories explain the actions of these high-tech criminals.

Rational choice theory
At the heart of this theory is the idea that people, whether as individuals or in a group, make the choice to commit crimes. Unlike other theories which argue that criminal tendencies develop from observing others, peoples biological heritage and psychological status, this theory views the decision to engage in crime as a rational choice (Ward, Stafford  Gray, 2006). Before committing a crime, an individual evaluates the benefit associated with the outcome of the intended crime in the light of the cost of committing the same. The possibility of benefits of a crime outweighing the cost of committing it makes a decision to commit the crime rational.

Computer criminals possess high-end skills and are very intelligent. Most target large organizations including military departments and multi-national corporations. While there may not be much financial reward for breaking into military systems unless the information is meant to be sold to other couuntries or criminals, targeting trans-national corporations can be very rewarding financially. Whether the criminals drain the corporations coffers and divert the monies to their accounts or the information is sold to rival companies, the criminals can earn millions of US dollars within a very short time. Due to the constraints of time, ability and the availability of relevant information, computer criminals sometimes end up overestimating the benefitting or understating the expected cost due to (Hayward, 2007).

Psychological theories
The principal argument of psychological theories of crime is that people commit crimes because they are psychologically unfit and therefore they have little or no control over the choices they make. Psychopaths or people suffering from anti-social personality disorder tend to have little regard for the rights and welfare of others and are therefore most likely to lead lives characterized by violence and crime.

Some computer criminals are motivated, not really by the financial reward they expect, but by the uncontrollable urge to commit a crime. The roots of this urge can often be traced back to abuse or molestation in childhood or in adulthood. Psychologically disturbed individuals with sharp computer skills identify targets and set to commit e-crimes sometimes to only interrupt the operations of the target. Psychological instability is occasionally used in defence in court when the criminals are apprehended and taken to court.

Conclusion
No one theory of crime is sufficient to explain wholly the diversity of incentives available to computer criminals all over the world. The truth is that these criminals are motivated by very different forces and blanket analyses and conclusions can be erroneous. As this paper shows however, the rational choice and psychological theories can explain why some computer criminals commit engage in criminal behaviour.

The environment plays a crucial role in molding an individuals personality and behavior. While heredity may also contribute to ones development, the kind of nurturing one experiences has an undeniable effect in his or her development. For this reason, the environment, namely, the family, school, peers, community, and physical environment play a big role in the development of delinquency and crime.

The Family
The family is the first environment that each individual is exposed to. Hence, the kind of upbringing and structure that one grows up with indeed affects his or her behavior. In adolescents particularly, studies have shown significant relationships between delinquent behavior and family environment. According to Matherne and Thomas, children from nontraditional families or those from single-parent and reconstituted households are more likely to develop delinquent behavior than those from traditional families. While traditional families may possess the resources, time, and energy to provide a balanced home environment for the children, nontraditional families lack these elements that make them more susceptible to delinquency and crime (661). Hence, families characterized by poverty and broken homes can be breeding grounds for delinquent behavior. Additionally, good parenting skills also influence children and may serve as a buffer for delinquency (qtd. in Matherne and Thomas 661).

Since they spend most of their days at home, it is apparent that the kind of support and supervision parents provide greatly affects childrens beliefs and actions (Frey et al. 9). Consequently, if they do not get the needed support and supervision and are instead abused and neglected, they are likely to develop antisocial, delinquent, and violent behaviors (qtd. in Jones qtd. in Rao 231). Rao added that physical punishments such as hitting, slapping, and punching provide a pattern for children to follow. Though these make them comply in the short run, they also strengthen the development of delinquency and crime in the long term (231). More strongly than the effect of physical punishment are emotional abuse such as screaming at the child, calling him or her insulting names, extremely criticizing and ignoring him or her, and neglect such as extreme lack of supervision and physical care (Rao 231-232). Other family factors that contribute to the development of delinquency and crime are family size, parental drinking habits, employment history, criminality (Rao 232), poor communication, and weak family bonds (Jones).

In addition, Slomkowski et al. also identified the role of siblings in the development of delinquency and crime. According to them, there is a correlation between brothers and sisters delinquent behaviors. An older siblings delinquency may influence the younger siblings behavior at one point. This may be true not just for brothers but for sisters as well. Factors that influence such delinquency may be pointed at hostility or coercion between siblings. Hence, a healthy relationship characterized by warmth and support between siblings (279-280) should be established to eliminate delinquent tendencies between them. With these, it is evident how the environment that an individual was raised with greatly affects his or her personality and behavior in society. Therefore, a supportive, supervising, stimulating, loving, caring, and properly disciplining family environment should be fostered primarily at home.      

Social environment
The social environment where an individual grows and develops is another contributing factor in delinquent behavior. After the home, the school has the responsibility of nurturing him or her to be a productive citizen. However, when school-related problems come into play, the opposite happens. In Frey et al.s study, they revealed that students with high attachment to school are less likely to show signs of delinquent behavior while those that possess low school attachments are more prone to develop violent and aggressive behavior. Additionally, students who eventually grow disengaged from school are at risk of committing violence. Because of this, teacher support becomes significant and school reforms targeting student attachment to school should therefore be considered (9). To do this, Sprott suggested that the school needs to create a supportive classroom climate and strengthen its academic focus. Furthermore, healthy social interactions and emotional support within the classroom is related to lower levels of violence since students may find the connectedness they need inside the classroom especially if they cannot find it outside. Moreover, a more focused academics is also related to low levels of delinquency since students become more invested in their studies, which in turn lessens the likelihood of committing delinquent acts (566-567). These factors may likewise bear fruit in the future. Since students become more engaged in their studies and are supported by the school, they tend to do well and perform excellently. In turn, when they experience the real world of work, they have better chances of getting stable and good-paying jobs that will keep them away from delinquent and criminal acts.

Another social network that plays a role in the development of delinquency is peers. In todays culture, where an individual chooses to spend most of his time with his or friends, the influence of friendship and connections to behavior is apparent. This can be seen as early as childhood. If children show aggressive behavior towards their peers as early as preschool, they may become outcasts, which they will most likely carry in their adulthood. Hence, they choose to bond with those whom they share similar behaviors. Given this, they create an environment where they influence and push one another towards delinquent behavior (Jones). Adolescents in particular are easily swayed and influenced by their closest friends actions because of their need for social acceptance and identity. According to Payne and Cornwell, an individual may likely model his or her delinquent behavior from his or her closest friends or those friends friends (145-146). Because of the desire to retain this circle of friends and maintain social attractiveness, adults and adolescents alike are motivated to behave how their friends do thus, if the friends maintain violent and delinquent behavior, they are motivated to follow this lead.

Additionally, the community where one resides also plays a role in the development of delinquency. As Frey et al. noted, witnessing, experiencing, and being exposed to violence in ones community or neighborhood likewise increases the possibility of developing violent behaviors. Therefore, a supportive and non-violent community is necessary for one to develop into pro-social citizens (9).
  
Physical Environment
The physical conditions of an environment likewise play a role in the development of delinquency and crime. According to Cassel and Bernstein, there are conditions in the environment that contribute to criminal behavior (111). Specific and discrete environmental factors that create psychological arousal, factors that become stressors over a period of time, elements that directly affect behavior that prompts one to control the environment, and actions people take as a response to environmental factors that leads to a chain of responses are all considered pathways that trigger criminal behavior (qtd. in Cassel and Bernstein 112).

One of the most studied environmental factors affecting crime is temperature. Studies have shown that riots in America have occurred in days when there was intense heat. Also, the most violent crimes were committed in the hot months and aggressive family disturbances have also been linked with heat-related increases. Moreover, noise is also related to aggressive behavior. Though unwanted sound does not directly cause one to act violently, it becomes a stressor or aggressor that provokes a person especially if he or she is already angry or aggressive (Cassel and Bernstein 113-114). Pollution likewise has a similar effect in behavior as evidenced by nonsmokers becoming aggressive when breathing smoke-filled air, child abuse and domestic quarrels increasing with increases in ozone levels, and combination of air pollution and other stressors being associated with hostility (qtd. in Cassel and Bernstein 114). Moreover, natural disasters such as earthquake, fire, hurricanes, and floods set the stage for criminal activity as angry and frustrated victims turn to stealing and other criminal acts for survival. Finally, ones personal space is also a factor to be considered. Though personal spaces may vary across cultures, when these are violated once someone trespasses into them, violent behavior may result (Cassel and Bernstein 114-115).

Conclusion
Given that the environment plays a crucial role in the development of delinquency and crime, it is therefore necessary that elements and factors within this environment are nurturing and supportive enough for an individual to choose to behave appropriately and lawfully. In this sense, family systems and structures, the school, the social networks and peers, the community, and the physical conditions of the environment should all come together to ensure that each individual grows and develops to be a responsible and law-abiding member of the society.