Criminology

This paper discusses key areas to think about before and during an interview with a potential criminal suspect. Such areas include deciding how to compose oneself during the interview as well as determining what psychological as well as physiological signs to look out for while interviewing the suspect.

Interviewing a Suspect
Given the way in which this particular suspect has been brought into the questioninginterview area, it would be wise to collect ones thoughts and disposition before entering the room. The key is to look for give away signs from the suspect not to give the suspect a number of signs or reasons not to talk.
First, considering the violent crime that has been committed and the way in which the suspect reacted to the arrest, it would be a good idea to enter the interview cool, calm, and collected exhibiting no signs of anger, cruelty, or sympathy for that matter. According to an online Code of Police Practice, it is a good idea to mentally place yourself in the suspects shoes to gain a better understanding of how the suspect is feeling and mentally reacting to the interviewing process (Code of Police 2010). For instance, with such a violent crime followed by a forceful arrest, the suspects nerves are going to be highly reactive and sensitive to anything said. The questioning will need to be slow and calm in order not to set the suspect off or close the suspect down. It will be good to note that the suspect will most likely be exhausted from the criminal act and the fight against being arrested. The suspects exhaustion, tiredness, and possibly thirst and even hunger should be played against him. With this attitude in place, the questions presented will be much more persuasive and successful in accomplishing the ultimate purpose of getting the suspect to talk.

Throughout the interview, certain eye movements and other particular modes of body language should be noted to help determine whether the suspect is telling the truth, playing a game to wear on your patience, or simply lying because he has mentally blocked out the heinous events of the last several hours. Nonverbal signs to look for include the suspects inability to sit still. Fidgeting, nail biting, lip chewing, excessive swallowing, aggressive movement of the body, scratching, rubbing, turning the head away or throwing the head back, changing the position of the legs or even stretching them away from the interviewer are all key signs that something is not adding up with the suspects story (Walters 2002). Other nonverbal signs to look for include conflicting behaviors between verbal and nonverbal cues. For instance, the suspect may verbally say one thing while non-verbally be shaking his head in the opposite position (such as contradicting himself with a yes or no head shake).

Knowledge of neurolinguistic eye movement will also be helpful throughout the interview. Neurolinguistic eye movement is a way an interviewer can determine whether or not the suspect is lying. For instance, some are taught that when a suspect answers a question by moving his eyes up and then to the left then he is visually constructing images that may or may not have actually occurred. If he moves his eyes down and to the right then he is visually remembering images (Eye Direction 2010). The direction of eye movement is said to be based on if the suspect is right or left handed (Eye Direction 2010). At the same time, other eye movements such as pupil dilation should also be noted (Walters 1997).

Finally, there are three specific types of body languages that should be noted throughout the interview process. These are sure signs of the suspects credibility and accuracy of retelling the events leading up to, during, and after the crime. These types of body language come from the headface, the handsarms, and the legsfeet. As noted earlier, a sure sign of anxiety, stress, and lying is changing positions of the feet or legs particularly moving them away from the interviewer. Movements of the eyes, a forced smile, or even eye twitching are signs of lying. Controlling body languages are also a heads up for trouble. Some suspects will intentionally sit on their hands or place their hands in their pockets to keep themselves from fidgeting or to keep themselves under control (Walters 2002). There are obviously many ways to handle an interview with a suspect, the main thing to remember is to be prepared with a thoroughly planned out strategy.

White collar crimes refers to corrupt business crimes that are committed by people occupying positions that are powerful in high office especially the people occupying corporate positions and government officials. The major ones range from insider trading, theft, computer crimes, pension fund crimes forgery medical crimes, internet scams, security and financial frauds, environmental crimes, identity thefts corruption and consumer fraud among other non classified and minor crimes. They are hard to identify and detect since they are executed via paperwork, computer and internet.

They pose a lot of headache to government agencies in their investigation because of their complexity and their hard to detect nature. These crimes have continued to be more sophisticated and more complex as   these fraudsters and scammers artists craft more clever ways of committing these crimes posing even more challenge to the agencies assigned by the government to investigate them like the FBI, CCID, EPA, Internet Revenue Service, the secret service, securities and exchange commission, customs department, National White Collar Research Centre and the Bureau for Justice Assistance (Wiesenberger L. 2010).

FBI estimates annually that these crimes cost the government around three hundred million dollars per year, a figure that throws the efficiency of these government agencies in combating white collar crime into question. Several laws exist for punishing these crimes like sanctioning corrupt business and charging the individuals involved and imposing hefty prison terms and restitution for them among other measures but these crimes have persisted despite these measures showing that these federal agents have continued to fall short of curbing these crimes to a minimum number that can be acceptable, a major limitation for these federal government agencies.

A major advantage of the investigation by these federal government agencies is there wide network of connections and coverage that make them to unravel even the biggest network of fraud networks. For example, the FBI runs many local offices within the United States where people can check in and report any flatulently activity going on in their area. These government agents also offer information on their offices and on their websites that sensitize people on how to avoid white collar crimes, a major advantage to the general public on staying alert to avoid being conned (Wiesenberger L. 2010). The agencies also provide guidelines on the necessary steps to take in case one becomes a victim of whiter collar scams and even help the victims in recovering their lost investments in a way that is unmatched by other investigating agencies like the private investigators.

One of the major limitations associated with these federal agencies is victimization and unfairness in the trial for these crimes. In most of these agencies, suspects under investigation is subjected to an unprotected trial and biased notion by the prosecutors that heshe might be guilty even before the guilty verdict is passed. Unfairness occurs when the witnesses may be forced to cooperate or side with the government or even forced guilty pleas. There are also reports of big companies manipulating the system when found guilty by siding with the government leaving individuals and not well connected people at the mercy of the justice system or the scammers (Wiesenberger L. 2010).

In summary, these government federal agencies have achieved considerable achievement in combating white collar crimes. If the unfairness and manipulation in the justice system can be eliminated, they can be able to achieve considerable success in combating white collar crimes

An essay on the relationship of terrorism and democracy and the relation of anarchy to the modern terrorism.

The emergence of the United States from the Britain was a controversy where they were fighting for the enlightenment democracy. This led to the American Revolution where the birth of democracy created conspiracy on terrorism.  A terrorist activity occurs more often in democracies. This is triggered by class inequality and the enlightenment. Terrorism is a threat to the lives of the citizens but overlooking it and overreaction might lead into a threat to   democracy.  Freedom of speech, thought and action is required for terrorism to take effect. In my essay my main theme is hat terrorism and democracy is mutually positively correlated where the presence of one determines the existence of the other.

Terrorism can be viewed from different dimension where in most cases it represents those who fight against the ruling government. In the bid to fight for democracy, the group is however termed as terrorism like in the French revolution.

The anarchists were intensively fighting for the democracy where they were demanding for the reorganization of the class structure and the distribution of wealth. The capitalists owned a lot of wealth and wee politically powerful and they were totally opposing the opinion. The failure of 1848 revolution was dreading where socialists demanded industrial control, the communists were campaigning for the centralized control of economy and anarchists were supporting them. These were attempts to make all the people equal not only with respect to freedom but also with the economic equality. (White, J 2009)

However the evolution only led to some economic awareness where the middle class achieved some wealth but there were no changes in the social structure. This was in a bid to emphasize for democracy over the centralized communist power and many people believed and compared them as the same thing to terrorism. These radical democrats, on realizing the democratization was slow opted for the violent revolutions. In the fight for democracy they were termed as terrorists due to their motive to terrorize the capitalists and their supporters. (White, J 2009)

In effort to avoid terrorism the anarchists resolved on the use of strikes, demonstration and mass actions. This way they avoided use of violence but this never worked for long and in the late nineteenth century the anarchists used beheading of head of states as a way of expression. There was a pattern of transformation through the combination of ideas and some anarchists moved from rhetoric to violence. This wholly denounced them as terrorists. The increased labor violence, rhetoric and social unrest championed political assassinations. Tension dominated between the cooperative anarchy and authoritarian where the anarchists advocated for political murder and this could be distributed into the society.

The movement attracted large number of followers and some followers settled for violence over the peaceful social change. The new alliances led to middle class political parties and a communal socialism was emerging. But the political structure heavily fought this and its dominance was blocked. To add their popularity, they merged with the labor parties for the workers as well as to stop isolation. But there was a difficulty in attracting the urban workers to their movement due to their increased wages. (White, J 2009)

 This eventually led to the bombing propaganda. This clearly shows that patriotic wars by the anarchists was misinterpreted and termed as terrorism whereas this was a fight for nationalism. The bombing propaganda was just meant to reduce the investment and make the capitalists financial interests unprofitable. This however, in turn would help in curbing the financial investments for the country. Eventually, this would help in sustaining the war as well as mobilizing followers to gain public attention. Their main task was not to kill, but of equal if not higher importance was to create support. This would help them to go through the war of liberation and help to support them to their objectives of political democracy. (Tim Pat)

The Irish republic army movement was meant to raise terrorism where al the volunteers were individuals with political interests. Their main goal was to fight against the superior force and thus they were trained on the use of arms. The army is full of sustained resistance and very hostile I a bid to fight the imperialism force and they are at the lead of many revolutions. They fought for a democratic government where every individual citizen has the opportunity to partake in making decisions that affects him. This is through decentralization of power. (Tim Pat)

In conclusion, the modern terrorism is related to the nineteenth century anarchism. The influential political society uses their powers and resources to fight the middle and the lower class. This is in effort to frustrate them and control them so as to avoid any power gain. There is no profound difference between the 911 conspiracy with the anarchy where at the end the ruling class take advantage of the middle class. Or was the United States not able to access the Iraq petroleum ores after the conspiracy.

The struggle for the unionists and the republicans was on the peak in the twentieth century Ireland. This was in the efforts for the Irish to gain independence from the British. The Irish tried a revolution in 1920s which never worked but they were given independence. Under the commanding by Collins the Irish Republic Army (IRA) was formed and trained on terrorist means of attacking the British. The IRA heavily fought the Irish government forces in claim for extension of the independence to all the Irish people. This was due to the difference in the control of the north and south parts of the country. The British government was controlling the northern region. This led to the loss of lives and even the murder of Michael Collins. As a result the country was dividing since the British had heavily invaded the north with a strong police force. There was an intensive terrorist campaign that took place in the early sixties against the British. But the Irish people were against the move and the lack of public support led to their retreat. (White, J 2009).

In 1969, there was an intensive catholic civil rights campaign which led to the rebirth of the Irish Republic Army. This was with an aim to fighting the Catholics. The Catholics and the Protestants in the north were unequal where the Protestants had increased civil rights and strong unions with respect to the Catholics that never had. The Catholics were demonstrating for the equality on the civil rights with the Protestants. This was in effort to support the Catholics economically and enable them to pursue in education and also good housing.

The northern government heavily attacked the civil rights activists and demonstrators but they never attacked the Protestants. But the IRA was adamant and never took sides in the demonstrations. In the summer of 1969, the demonstrators for both the Protestants and the Catholics crashed and violence in the streets until the British government came for rescue. The entry of the British peace keepers led to the rebirth of IRA, where two assumed two roles. One of the IRA group supported the peace keepers while the other group were opposing the mission. The peace keeping forces took sides with one of the party IRA soldiers and this decision paved way for reinforcement. Considering the country was under effect of repression, the republicans were supporting the British troop expecting to get protection from the unionists and the police. (White, J 2009).

But this led to frustrations since the British army was progressively increasing their oppressing measures and the Catholic neighborhoods were surrounded and gassed by military forces in search for subversives.  This eventually led to the withdrawal of support from the Republicans. As a result, the Catholics together with the republicans joined hands with the IRA and together focused on the British soldiers as the enemy. This new policy gave birth to political differences with the main aim of fighting back the British soldiers. (Tim P).

This mobilized for the immense support for the IRA and multiplied in ranks expeditiously. Using the experience they had earned from the same British soldiers, any step meant by the British soldiers was also taking action simultaneously. The conflict took its climax when the British soldiers attempted to attack the unionists and intensive terrorism took place. This resulted to the call for legal means to solve the violence by the year 1972 from the Northern Ireland government. (White, J 2009).

The type of terrorism practiced by IRA is well understood by the use of structural framework. They were the initial group to shift from the social political terrorism to ethnic political and quasi religious terrorism. This later turned into a combination of the two. Looking at how they disowned one religious group was a way to create the internal conflicts. They were localized terrorists that were prioritizing their local agendas. The group reflected an organic organizational structure adaptation as well as its own powerful underpinnings. This is through the use of various violent tactics where they were aware of the asymmetrical nature of the armed confrontations that is fought by the insurgents and their enemy significance (White 2009). They would indirectly work with the British forces, in the name of two parallel groups. This usually helped them in networking and the gaining of knowledge and skills on how the soldiers work for them to respond appropriately and help gain absolute superiority in military force, arms and other resources. They used innovative types of offensive operations that were not focused on defending a fixed base. In this case, the technique makes it difficult for the state to counter and attack them and could only be effectively carried out by a new type of organization (White, 2009).

This enabled them to separate into two firing groups but the two groups are coordinated by a single person. The coordinator directs the separated and sealed off firing groups that were then coordinated by one or two persons. These tasks were finally planned at the macro level and the group was able to support itself and rise through the support of the masses. This call for the general command and the followers at the lower levels take the tasks with preference. Being in ability to recruit more followers in the group who are ready to attack portrays their sufficient networking that helps to sustain the movement. (Ekaterina S 2003).

In conclusion, the excellence of any particular group and vision depends on the timing and accuracy. This would also depend on the tactics incorporated to retreat. The Ireland Republic Army (IRA) was on the downfall due to lack of popularity. They were able to realize a gap in the leadership styles and came back at the appropriate time. Not knowing the outcome, they worked on double standardization where they were on both the attacking and the attacked party. This technique worked perfectly and they were able move up the leading post and high military levels. This manner of terrorism can deeply be explained by the use of structural frame wok of terrorism considering the group was at national level.

Evil doers in society have taken many forms.  As young children, the evil doer takes the form of the boogeyman under the bed, which then turns into the class bully.  Later in life the evil doer is the drug user or beer drinker in high school, but then the evil doer suddenly is the man or woman next door.

Crime in society has always been present, but the person committing the crimes never has a distinctive look.  It could be anyone.  In todays society, there are more violent offenses being committed in schools and the workplace.  These places were once devoid of any violence and crime.  Violence exists within society and believably inside the prison system as well.  Society lives within a prison that it has created for itself, while inmates live inside a physical prison that society built.
   
Throughout the existence of criminal behavior and violence, man has attempted to theorize societys view and reason for the maladaptive behaviors.  Two criminological theories take a direct stand with the issue of societys prison versus an inmates prison.  The conflict theory and the rational theory express the needs and deficits in both instances, but most importantly, these theories give reason for the violence found in both situations.  The conflict theory is based on the belief that within society there is no individuality, but rather competitiveness with regard to power and values (Byrne, Taxman,  Hummer, 2008).  To better explain how the conflict theory performs in society, look at the underdog.

The underdog is too often stereotyped and assumed to be the deviant or the criminal.  Take for instance the following example.  A homeless man is frequently seen sitting in front of a local grocery begging for spare change from the grocery patrons.  Some patrons give the homeless man money out of concern and pity, while other patrons choose to just keep walking.  Weeks later, the grocery falls victim to a robbery where the two checkout clerks are held at gunpoint for the money contained in the cash registers.  Both clerks are too shaken to be able to give the police an accurate description of the suspect, but patrons quickly reference the homeless man who often frequented the storefront begging for change.  Later in the day, the local police find the homeless man at a soup kitchen eating lunch.  They question the homeless man of his whereabouts earlier in the day.  He explains that he was at the soup kitchen.  The officers speak to the owners of the soup kitchen who confirm that the homeless man was there the entire morning.  The officers now have no real leads to finding the suspect unless one of the clerks recollects a visual memory of the suspect.  The grocery patrons who had offered information in regards to the homeless man automatically assumed that because the man was homeless and begging for change, that he must have been the one who robbed the store.  The conflict theory shows how society is too quick to assume and expect the worst of someone because of an economical or other deficit which lowers their position on the social ladder.
   
The rational theory is built around the understanding that each person is responsible for their actions based on thought.  This thought is surmised by making choice decisions in reference to means versus ends, costs, and benefits (Byrne, Taxman,  Hummer, 2008).  Unless an individual is learning disabled or suffered from a biological or psychological condition that makes it virtually impossible to decipher right from wrong, each person is responsible for his or her own actions.  The entire rational theory is based on human nature.
   
Once an individual has been sentenced to prison, an entirely new chapter of living opens for the soon-to-be inmate.  Inmates who have been incarcerated or paroled have stipulated the only way to survive on the inside is to forget the outside.  It is impossible to co-exist between the two worlds.  The rules of living inside of a prison are pretty self-explanatory.  Talk to no one.  Do not believe anyone.  Trust no one.  Do your own time and not someone elses time.  These rules may sound simple enough, but many lives have been threatened, assaulted, and murdered over these four simple rules (DeRosia, 1998).  Once an inmate is released, by parole or for completion of a sentence, the reunification process begins.  No matter how much time has elapsed from the commencement of an inmates sentence and release is irrelevant.  Re-entering society can prove to be difficult and impossible to many offenders which create a prison on the outside.  Some parolees suffer from nightmares, panic attacks, depression, and even become suicidal when the pressure of succeeding on the outside is compared to life on the inside of a prison.  Prison life is dictated to the point that inmates have little if any choices, where as a recently released offender has the freedom once again to make his or her own choices (DeRosia, V, 1998).  A lack of self-confidence, rehabilitation, employment, and education are reasons for the offenders likelihood to re-offend.
   
Society has sealed itself in an outside prison.  By making and passing laws to lock up the evil doers, society has created a faade of being safe.  There has long been the myth of safety if the bad were physically separated from the good.  Beyond the myth exists the fact that society has not made it easy to survive.  Conditions of unemployment due to lay-offs, family dynamics, and relationship difficulties all combine to cause one to blow a fuse.  The reaction is often of a violent nature, which ultimately ends with an individual being introduced or re-introduced to the legal system.  Society is not as compassionate as it would like to think.
   
There are many implications and ramifications in the correctional system.  Certain crimes can cause an individual to be placed into protective custody, or solitary, for a good portion of their sentence as a means of protecting their life.  Sex offenders or someone who has harmed or murdered a child are subsequently amongst the protected groups.  Society would rather see severe torture and mistreatment of such individuals, and inmates feel the same way.  With this belief in mind, one could easily assume that society allows the prison inmates to do their dirty work.  Violence towards these groups is many times lethal.  Despite the efforts of the prison system to prevent any harm from coming to these groups, the inmates do sometimes outsmart the correctional system.  This should not be misconstrued and believed that only specific groups incite violence inside a prison.  Violence within the prison system comes from many different triggers.  The transparent examples include a bad letter from home, a cheating spouse, a bad visit or a cancelled visit, time added to a sentence, and not receiving a job assignment (Bell, 2002).  These are some of the reasons for prison violence.  Other reasons partially include groupings, but not in the aforementioned aspect.  Gang violence inside of prisons is rampant.  Once an inmate joins a gang, either before or after entering a prison, the only way a member can leave the gang is often via death.
   
Prison sentences seem to satisfy the personal whims of a frightened society.  Satisfaction for society is only temporary.  When prisons release inmates back into society, the former inmate is met with numerous hurdles.  If life before was difficult, then the former-inmate should be prepared for more difficulties.  Society places an unwritten scarlet letter on ex-convicts.  This stigma creates a bias and in some cases, actual discrimination against the former-inmate.  The former inmate is met not only with a permanent criminal record, but he or she is faced with the moral dilemma of survival (Bell, 2002).  
   
The cultures inside and outside of prisons are mixing, but this is not news to anyone in the legal spectrum.  Individuals come out of prison often knowing more criminally than before entering the system at all.  Those going into prison do not fear it as much as in years past.  Inmates are afforded the luxuries of cable television, air conditioning, conjugical visits, family visits, mail, newspapers, three meals, snacks, and even employment.  There are homeless people living every day just wishing for one meal.  The irony of the situation is deplorable.  The effects of the prison system have shown to be working.  In 2008, Canadas total number of crimes, based on severity and volume, decreased by 5 (Wallace, 2009).  Another astonishing fact is that the rate of homicides in Canada also decreased in 2008.  The total number of homicide victims in Canada was 611, down by 17, and indicated a decrease of 2 from the year before (Wallace, 2009).
   
Culturally, inmates present with more obstacles than in the past.  Prison officials act within their job positions as if they are fearful of an inmate pursuing legal action for their treatment while under the systems care.  Inmates should not be afforded the right to pursue anything, as they are being punished.  However, society has now deemed it appropriate and inmates are to be rehabilitated and not punished.  Inmates have developed the mental concept of us versus them, where the us is the inmates and the them is the correctional system (Bell, 2002).
   
Those entering the system are found to be lacking in many areas.  Inmates often have a long and torrid criminal history.  They often come from single parent or broken homes.  There is little if any evidence of having received a proper education, and the inmates social skills are often lacking.  Inmates seem to be driven by panic, fear, anger, and suicidal tendencies (DeRosia, 1998).  Little remorse is ever shown for the actions that brought on such a devastating consequence.  Prisoners express their emotions frequently through violence, which unfortunately, is typical.

The Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE) tested the psychological dynamics of both one is the authoritative position and the powerless position (Zimbardo, 2009).  The experiment was set up to last a total of 12 days, but ended after six short days.  During the experiment, students acted in the position of inmates and corrections officers.  One student quit the experiment after what was later termed to be a nervous-breakdown in behavior.  Another student was taken out of the experiment because the experiment became too life-like, whereby the student forgot his own identity.  The students who were portraying the correctional guards became too into their characters and forgot that these were their colligate peers.  The experiment was ended at the suggestion of an outsider.  If only six days was too much for the students, then what is the probable outcome of inmates serving decades in prison    
   
An individual entering the prison system has a better chance of surviving without being affected by the environment if he or she has developed good coping skills throughout their life.  The sex, age, and gender also play a part in the inmates survival within the system.  An inmate should be able to adapt to any given situation.  Finally, a good level of self-esteem and self-image is also essential to ones survival.  These few traits allow the inmate to take their sentence on a day by day basis.  They do not focus on the length of time between now and the release date.  An offender learns to keep to him or herself without becoming entangled in someone elses drama.  People on the street circumvent these same feelings daily as they go off to work, come home from work, and interact with others.  These behaviors and feelings are actually shared by both inmates and citizens in the free world.  The behaviors are the same, but the environments are different.

Not every member of society is in agreement with the conflict theory or the rational theory.  Some members of society feel that the problems within society and the criminals that commit them cannot be fixed.  Some feel that states are wasting money on societal waste by attempting to rehabilitate their malevolent behaviors and thoughts.  There are some members of society who are even demanding that tougher prison sentences be implemented as a means of keeping the streets and neighborhoods free of criminals.  It would seem that society is acting out of fear and panic, and that what would be violence is being acted upon in a passive-aggressive way.  These are the same characteristics of someone who is entering prison, and it is indicative of the fact that the two cultures are mixing.
   
The arguments over theories, personalities, responsibility, and future actions will likely never end.  Each individual views the correctional system in a different way, especially when it comes to society being made to re-welcome individuals who are being released from prison.  Some who are released from prison cannot adapt to life outside of the institutional confounds of prison, and they ultimately end up re-offending as a way to go back.  Society does a good job of setting up boundaries and obstacles that make it easier to identify the good members from the bad members of society.  It is odd how the most basic of human rights goes unrecognized when it involves an ex-offender.  Suddenly the rules change.  The only way the change will be seen is when the tables get turned.  Then society will be held subject to its own theories of conflict and rationalization.  Societys own actions and decisions will be the downfall of their self-proclaimed power and the weapon that ensures its defeat.

At a time where ideas can be widely distributed among the population through any of the mass media, its more important than ever to be able to tell the difference between reliable and worthy information sources from the superstitious and poorly supported.

While science is subject to revision, improvement, self-correction, and has proven its effectiveness in helping us understand the world we live in, pseudoscience ignores the fact that their claims are most of times contradicted by established scientific knowledge and that usually fall apart when faced with actual empirical evidence (Beyerstein, 1995).

Scientology is presented as a science by its founder, Ronald Hubbard, in his book Dianetics The Modern Science of Mental Health. Nevertheless, at the same time it claims that its knowledge emerges from certain fundamental truths, such as that Man is an immortal, spiritual being and his experience extends well beyond a single lifetime (Church of Scientology, Religion and Philosophy). According to Castis set of criteria for distinguishing between science and pseudoscience, Scientific progress can be made only if a hypothesis is at least potentially open to dismissal. This statement alone shows that the bases of scientology are not in any way scientific and should make us suspicious of any of the further claims derived from the arbitrarily established axioms of this pseudoscience. It is also important to bear in mind that this belief system assumes the existence of a spiritual world, a hypothesis that can not be subject to the scientific method since its not falsifiable or testable in any way.

The danger of scientology is that it provides poor answers that are easily accepted as truth by people who are genuinely looking for knowledge but fail to understand the difference between legitimate and dishonest information.

Tracing the historical developments in forensic science since the late nineteenth century

Forensic science, the scientific methodology of authenticating evidence, was developed over the centuries. It is hard to believe that todays hyper-technology in crime investigation began from simple techniques of identification. Alphonse Betillons invention of anthropometry in 1883 must have marked the beginning of suspect identification (or what we might call collection of evidence). The technique of measuring body parts- although it was largely a trial and error sort of approach- provided a means of linking a suspect to the scene of crime on the understanding that human features were distinct and fairly constant in adults. It informs the practice of comparing suspects feet to footprints at a crime scene but perhaps a contemporary application borrowed from Bertillon is the use of tire marks to trace a stolen vehicle.

Then in the 19th century, Conan Doyle invented the fictitious character Sherlock Holmes, whose skills in observation and deductive reasoning helped to unravel mysterious cases. Operating like todays sensational James Bond, he inspired criminal investigators to experiment with scientific techniques of collecting evidence, thereby contributing to later developments in Forensic Science. It ushered into the annals of criminology the practice of drawing generalized conclusions from minor details.

The break through in criminal investigation came in 1932, when FBI founder Edgar Hoover invented a crime laboratory, which was established in Los Angeles. This was a big leap as evidence could be analyzed out of the scene of crime. As we know it today, it was a milestone in overcoming the challenges posed by destruction of evidence (e.g. by heavy rains) and ensuring error-proof accuracy.