Criminology

Question one
The patterns that guide the lives of young people today affect the ways in which their behavior will be shaped. The relationships and interactions of these young individuals undergo a lot of transitions within the different stages of their lives. They tend to behave according to the pressures of their immediate environment such as the school, family and what their peers demands. These might lead them to behave in ways that are not socially accepted by their institutions. This delinquent behavior by the minors is known as juvenile delinquency.

In criminology, juvenile delinquency is understood to include all wrongs committed to the public by young individuals aged between 12 years to 17 years. In the US, it refers to the behavior of individuals who have not attained the maturity age and their behavior is not accepted by the formal institutions. Many theories have been put forward by sociologists in their attempts to explain juvenile delinquency. The approaches used vary from theory to theory. The main source of the factors that lead these individuals into behaving as described can be used to describe their cause (Siegel, 2002).

The differential association theory was put forward by Edwin Sunderland in his argument that individuals learn new and different attitudes, techniques and values through their interaction with others. Through the interaction juveniles learn how to commit crimes as they grow. The criminal behavior is learned by associating with both criminal and anti-criminal behavior patterns just as they are involved in other school learning activities. Their definitions of the accepted legal codes can be understood to be favorable or unfavorable and therefore if the juveniles believe that the legal codes are unfavorable, they will commit a crime (Felson, 1998).

The policy implications according to this theory are much easier if they occur in the school environment. Interaction and socialization with the different groups is the main cause of criminal behavior and therefore these gangs must be identified and kept away from the school children. Resocialization can be administered to those who are already caught up in it. Employment of intervention measures such as peer counseling, instilling personal and social skills through training and engaging them in school based programmes will help (Walklate, 2003).

Social control theories view juvenile delinquency as being caused by the absence or lack of social bonds that usually encourage individuals to adhere to the rules governing the institutions. These theories compare the relationships, values and cultural beliefs that prevent individuals from breaking the set rules and regulations with those forces that drive these individuals into committing such crimes. The theory specifies that delinquents can be influenced not participate in crime through their relationships with others, their values and norms.

This theory contains four control mechanisms that can be applied by educational institutions to reduce delinquent behaviors. This includes direct and indirect punishment to the offenders or rewards are awarded according to the act committed. The next is internalizing the notion that the individual will not engage in criminal acts and finally practicing control through satisfying the needs of the children in the hope that they will not engage in criminal activities (Clarke, 1995).

Rational choice theory and deterrence theory can also be used to explain why juveniles engage in criminal acts. Absolute deterrence can be used to determine the amount of successful prevention of crime as a result of the availability of a formal system that punishes those who commit crimes. General deterrence means that the students in an institution will stop committing crimes because they have witnessed others being punished as a result of committing the act. The rational choice theory specifies the rewards, costs and benefits that one will face by committing criminal acts (Tierney, 2006).

These learning institutions can design disciplinary measures that will be inflicted upon those who break the rules and also those who adhere to the rules and regulations must be rewarded. This will help in reducing the amount of delinquent behavior in schools. The measures include retribution whereby punishment is designed to fit the crime, using the scared straight program of the 1970s, specific deterrence and severity in the administration of punishment.
                 
Question two
Today, criminals have resorted to engaging in violent acts using unlawful means. Terrorism can be motivated by a political social, economic or religious as part of the fulfillment of their interests these is achieved through acts such as assassinations, bombings and hijacking. A number of criminological theories can be used to explain the causes of such actions.

Criminological conflict theory can be used to determine the underlying causes of terrorist activities. It is based on the works of Karl Marx and Max Weber. Different parties in the society are in constant fights due to the existence of disparities brought about by the emergence of injustices as a result of economic deprivations. According to Merton (1993), these factors lead to the creation of emotional factors that bring about tensions between those who are economically advantaged and those who are economically disadvantaged. The resultant effects are power struggles in an attempt to control the source of the conflicting interest which in most cases is controlling the economic power. The less advantaged may resort to using illegal means such as terrorism in revenge for the denial of their interests.

This can be contained by determining the legitimization of norms and values, ensuring efficiency and accountability in public administration and also controlling the activities of different groups. The society should also ensure that there is no monopoly of power vested to certain individuals and all members of the society should be exposed to the same conditions. 

Strain theory states that citizens are encouraged to commit criminal acts as a result of social structures that exist in society.  It is majorly concerned with the structures within the society as being the cause of crime (Agnew, 1992). It follows the works of Emile Durkheim and has been advanced by a number of scholars including Robert Merton (1938), Cohen (1955), Agnew (1992) and Messner and Rosenfeld (1994. The strain is caused as result of frustrations and anger due to inability to achieve the expected socioeconomic goals. There are a number of ways used in the delivery of the deviant acts which include the use of innovation where they employ illegitimate criteria to achieve their economical gains. The other method is the conformity to an institutionalized framework of ritualistic beliefs such as suicide bombers. Another type of deviant behavior is seen in retreaters who turn against society and is mostly characterized in drug addicts. Finally, there are those who try to change the society and are rebellious to any form of development.

As it can be seen from the strain theory, the inequities and pressures that exist in society play a major part in leading people to engage in crime to fulfill their obligations of bridging the gaps that exist in society and also joining groups that are rebellious to the society. No individual is born as a criminal but they are just made to be criminals. Therefore to prevent the increase in terrorist activities, the society should identify the social factors that lead people to commit crime and put in place policy measures that will try to alleviate these stresses. The strain theory offers a structural as well as a functional explanation to the cause of crime and these can be combined in the identification and location of the processes, factors or events that might lead to crime (Agnew, 1992).

The psychological trait theory is concerned with all the mental factors that lead individuals to commit criminal acts. Their actions are studied over a wide range of traits including their personal characters, intelligence and how they learn. This theory is subdivided into sub theories which include the psychodynamic theory that was put forward y Sigmund Freud and studies the functions of the mind (the conscious, preconscious and unconscious) and how they interrelate towards the performance of actions (Walklate, 2003). The behavioral theory studies the human actions that are caused as a result of learning experiences in their daily lives. This is usually influenced by the media, environment and family. The final theory is the cognitive theory which focuses on the mental perception of individuals towards the world that surrounds them. This is seen in how they perceive the obeying of power through the avoidance of punishment. Individuals then become responsible for their actions and they extend their actions to others. The most important trait under this trait is the respect for human kind and is seen in the ways in which individuals apply their principles to justice, equality in society and respect to the lives of human beings.

Since the crimes are caused due to mental factors, distinguishing the variations of criminal responsibilities through the study of the factors that leads individuals to behave in a particular way will help in understanding the underlying psychological disorders. Their personality disorders should be addressed to reduce criminal activities.