Criminology

1. Conflict Criminology provides a unique view of crime causation. Please explain the general thrust of this approach and then explain in detail one of the major theories to include its main points as well as implications and conclusions.

Conflict criminology posits that crime is as a result of conflicting interests between distinct classes in society or at times between separate groups within the same class vying for limited resources. Because one class or group within a class controls the means of production to the exclusion of all others, the excluded class seeks extra legal ways to gain access to these means.

Structural Marxist criminology was developed by Marxists who argued that capitalist states will have a higher than average crime rate since the economic system promotes inequality in the distribution of resources. The disadvantaged class would resort to crime to get more wealth through criminal activities like blackmail, stealing and theft. Crime within the same social class would be perpetrated by those elements that seek to dominate others through gaining access to more money as well as political power. White collar crime, cyber crime and embezzlement through fraudulent means are some of the tactics they use to enrich themselves.

In instances where the dominant political class seeks to entrench their power, they will enact new laws criminalizing certain actions by the other classes. Oppressive laws ensure that the majority are made submissive to the ruling class and that any defiance of such laws will lead to incarceration or execution. Bans on political meetings and rallies are some of the measures rulers use to criminalize the actions of their opponents.

This theory has been criticized for failing to explain why socialist states have crime rates despite the theoretical absence of class conflicts. It also falls short in providing an answer to the low rate of crime in capitalist states like Switzerland. However as a starting point for explaining crime, the theory is useful to sociologists and government planners seeking to reduce crime rates. Appropriate interventions should be implemented to reduce wealth inequalities by providing the less endowed classes in society with the means to improve their incomes and encourage social mobility. 

2. Age and gender are thought by many to be strong correlates of crime. Please discuss each of these variables presenting major issues, research and conclusions.

Criminologists have found a correlation between the age of a person and their gender with respect to their disposition towards crime.  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiAdolphe_Quetelet o Adolphe Quetelet Adolphe Quetelet conducted studies that revealed criminal tendencies began at tender age when the mind was most impressionable. His findings formed the basis for the school of sociological positivism that postulated crime was influenced by societal factors. Young children from low income areas exposed to extreme poverty and want would resort to crime to meet their basic needs and secondary wants. Learning from example, they would start by engaging in petty crime and graduate to more serious offenses as they grew older. Peer group pressure and the need to be part of the in-group pushes these young minds into a life a crime especially when there are no role models to give them guidance in life and offer them an alternative to acquiring wealth and riches. This factor explains the incidence of crime among middle class and well to do households.  Hirschi argued that lack of social controls contributed to young people to engaging in crime. Poor socialization and the breakdown of moral and social values meant that the youth lost focus. As a result, they become easily discouraged and lose interest in achieving any dreams they held. With nothing to look forward to, the youth engage in petty crime to achieve their short term goals. As they age, they become hardened criminals spending most of their lives in and out of jail.

Traditional role models and gender stereo types mold the female as a non- aggressive person unsuited to a life of crime. Society perceives women as fragile and empathetic to the plight of others and thus less likely to deprive another person of their property. Male machismo and the burden of being the breadwinner contribute to more men engaging in crime to bolster their male egos or to provide for their families.  This accounts for the high number of males incarcerated across the country as compared with females. 

3. In his overall assessment of criminological theories provided in chapter 17, Vold discusses three general types of explanations of crime. Please discuss these three types citing specific examples of each, pointing out positive and negative aspects of each and mentioning the empirical support each may have generated.

Volds explanations for the occurrence of crime include the general theory of crime, the control balance theory and the general strain theory. In the general theory of crime he posits that people engage in crime because they have low self control. Such people are unable to delay gratification and do whatever it takes to satisfy their immediate wants. Without the financial means to pay for the things they desire, they resort to crime to finance their expenditure. This theory explains why low income areas are most affected by crime since poverty and want characterize their daily lives. It fails to address the incidence of crime in middle class and rich neighborhoods where households are able to afford most of their requirements.

According to the control balance theory, Vold accounts for the incidence of crime due to the lack of social controls that prevent an individual from committing criminal acts. Religious and cultural norms that discourage crime acted as a deterrent in past times when deviant behavior was dealt through corporal punishment or by an individual being ostracized from the community.  Role models inspired the youth to achieve the best in life and eschew crime. High moral standards in society acted as a disincentive for the youth to engage in deviant activities. In the absence of these factors, the youth lose focus in life and turn to crime as a means of achieving their dreams. Work ethics are sacrificed as they seek to enrich themselves in the shortest time possible. Areas where moral decadence is prevalent are associated with high crime levels thus this theory explains in part the phenomenon of crime. However, middle class households with strong family values are still affected by crime. These households also have a number of role models to look up to as an inspiration in life. By failing to explain this inconsistency, the theory is limited in its application.
 
The general strain theory posits that crime occurs because of the difficulty in achieving ones goals and ambitions due to unequal opportunities. America boasts of the American dream and ambitious youth dream of owning big houses, fancy cars and having lost of money. However, very early in life they realize some of these opportunities are beyond their reach due to institutionalized practices and discriminatory measures. Such people resort to crime in a bid to fulfill their desires since all their genuine efforts to achieve their dreams have been frustrated by the system.  By focusing on the failure to fulfill individual ambitions as the basis of crime, this theory fails to explain white-collar crime by well heeled individuals. Bernard Madoff had reached the pinnacle of his career but decided to execute massive fraud when he had everything most people would wish for.

4.  America is known by some as the great melting pot. Please discuss whether you believe this is true or not and include in your answer the waves and patterns of immigration to America, what peoplehood is and how it impacts the criminal justice system and also what significant efforts our government has taken to try to ensure equal treatment for all citizens.

In the early days of the 16th century, the US was a haven to those people fleeing from religious persecution, financial distress or slavery. They came from all corners of the globe and included Scots, Irish, Swedes, Germans and French people.  As they settled down they interacted with each other and inter married creating offspring that were a mixture of their parents heritages. In a sense immigrants to the US developed a new people called the Americans.

The slave trade introduced blacks into the US and contributed to the policy of racial purity and ethnic discrimination. Intermarriage between blacks and whites was highly discouraged and laws enacted to punish those who broke these social taboos. The need for cheap labor after the collapse of the slave trade saw the influx of Hispanics to work in the sugar plantations and fruit farms. These immigrants kept very much to themselves and had little social contact with the blacks or whites.

Despite the civil rights movement gaining ground by having discriminatory laws repealed, social integration as witnessed during the initial immigration into the states did not take place. Isolated cases of intermarriage occurred but these were more the exception than the rule. Sociologists referred to the US population as a salad bowl as opposed to a melting pot since various ethnic communities opted to keep their identity intact rather than submerge it by mixing with other people. 

The concept of peoplehood was born as communities preferred to stick with their kin as opposed to mixing with other nationalities. This idea saw the rise of various neighborhoods exclusive to certain ethnic people. These societies have shared values and cultures which enable them to get along very well. Unfortunately, the criminal justice system appears to profile such peoplehoods and targets them for crimes it believes they are predisposed to commit.

The criminal justice system has often been accused of perpetrating racial bias in the administration of justice. African Americans feel targeted by the system and various studies show a disproportionate number of blacks on death row even though arrest figures show whites outnumbered blacks for similar situated crimes. Minorities also complain of being unfairly targeted by law enforcement officers on suspicion of peddling drugs and possessing illegal firearms.

To address the concerns of various lobby groups, the government has set up commissions to assess the situation and come up with solutions that will ensure racial discrimination in the criminal justice system is eliminated. Some suggestions include abolishing the death penalty for capital crimes since it appears to discriminate against blacks. Racial profiling has been outlawed as a tool of crime detection and prevention since the basis rests on preconceived ideas about race rather than on scientific considerations. 

5. Please discuss the significance and impact that any of the racialethnic groups that we have studied have had on the criminal justice system. For the group that you choose, please describe its demographics, historical perspective, cultural heritage, ties that bind and relationship with the criminal justice system.

The African American community comprises about 13 of the total population of the United States. Early immigrants were forcibly brought to the continent to work as slaves on cotton plantations. To ensure the slaves remained submissive to their masters, white legislators passed laws that discriminated against the black population and entrenched the practice of slavery. Weary of the oppressive nature of slavery, black slaves from time to time staged protests and organized secret plans to escape from slave owners. Ringleaders of these protests and those caught fleeing were brutally punished or incarcerated by the justice system which was structured to favor the white community. The perception created in the minds of the white community as a result of black attempts to liberate themselves is that blacks are anti-establishment. The black community perceives the state as a willing collaborator with the white race to suppress them using the criminal justice system. Thus, the black communitys first contact with the criminal justice system was an adversarial one in which the blacks were discriminated against and unfairly treated.

Unfortunately, this situation persists until the present time. At all stages of the justice system, blacks are disproportionately represented as criminals despite racist Jim Crow laws being expunged from the statute books. Claims of racism abound with reports from the justice department showing a clear racial bias in the application of the death penalty against blacks. Statistics reveal that an African American male under 18 is likely to be incarcerated at least once before his 25th birthday. The chances of him being tried for a capital crime increase the more exposed he is to ghetto life and drug abuse. 

Racial profiling by the law enforcement officers means that a black male driving a SUV is more likely to be stopped and searched on suspicion of carrying drugs or illegal weapons than a male from any other community. This racial bias has reinforced the adversarial relationship the black community has with the criminal justice system.